Accustomed as we are at the present day to see street after street of well-lighted thoroughfares, brilliantly illuminated by gas-lamps maintained by public authority, we can scarcely appreciate the fact that the use of gas is, comparatively speaking, of but recent growth, and that, like the use of coal itself, it has not yet existed a century in public favour. Valuable as coal is in very many different ways, perhaps next in value to its actual use as fuel, ranks the use of the immediate product of its distillation viz., gas; and although gas is in some respects waning before the march of the electric light in our day, yet, even as gas at no time has altogether superseded old-fashioned oil, so we need not anticipate a time when gas in turn will be likely to be superseded by the electric light, there being many uses to which the one may be put, to which the latter would be altogether inapplicable; for, in the words of Dr Siemens, assuming the cost of electric light to be practically the same as gas, the preference for one or other would in each application be decided upon grounds of relative convenience, but gas-lighting would hold its own as the poor man’s friend. Gas is an institution of the utmost value to the artisan; it requires hardly any attention, is supplied upon regulated terms, and gives, with what should be a cheerful light, a genial warmth, which often saves the lighting of a fire.

The revolution which gas has made in the appearance of the streets, where formerly the only illumination was that provided by each householder, who, according to his means, hung out a more or less efficient lantern, and consequently a more or less smoky one, cannot fail also to have brought about a revolution in the social aspects of the streets, and therefore is worthy to be ranked as a social reforming agent; and some slight knowledge of the process of its manufacture, such as it is here proposed to give, should be in the possession of every educated individual. Yet the subjects which must be dealt with in this chapter are so numerous and of such general interest, that we shall be unable to enter more than superficially into any one part of the whole, but shall strive to give a clear and comprehensive view, which shall satisfy the inquirer who is not a specialist.

The credit of the first attempt at utilising the gaseous product of coal for illumination appears to be due to Murdock, an engineer at Redruth, who, in 1792, introduced it into his house and offices, and who, ten years afterwards, as the result of numerous experiments which he made with a view to its utilisation, made a public display at Birmingham on the occasion of the Peace of Amiens, in 1802.

More than a century before, however, the gas obtained from coal had been experimented upon by a Dr Clayton, who, about 1690, conceived the idea of heating coal until its gaseous constituents were forced out of it. He described how he obtained steam first of all, then a black oil, and finally a “spirit,” as our ancestors were wont to term the gas. This, to his surprise, ignited on a light being applied to it, and he considerably amused his friends with the wonders of this inflammatory spirit. For a century afterwards it remained in its early condition, a chemical wonder, a thing to be amused with; but it required the true genius and energy of Murdock to show the great things of which it was capable.

London received its first instalment of gas in 1807, and during the next few years its use became more and more extended, houses and streets rapidly receiving supplies in quick succession. It was not, however, till about the year 1820 that its use throughout the country became at all general, St James’ Park being gas-lit in the succeeding year. This is not yet eighty years ago, and amongst the many wonderful things which have sprung up during the present century, perhaps we may place in the foremost rank for actual utility, the gas extracted from coal, conveyed as it is through miles upon miles of underground pipes into the very homes of the people, and constituting now almost as much a necessity of a comfortable existence as water itself.

The use of gas thus rapidly extended for illuminating purposes, and to a very great extent superseded the old-fashioned means of illumination.

The gas companies which sprang up were not slow to notice that, seeing the gas was supplied by meter, it was to their pecuniary advantage “to give merely the prescribed illuminating power, and to discourage the invention of economical burners, in order that the consumption might reach a maximum. The application of gas for heating purposes had not been encouraged, and was still made difficult in consequence of the objectionable practice of reducing the pressure in the mains during daytime to the lowest possible point consistent with prevention of atmospheric indraught.”

The introduction of an important rival into the field in the shape of the electric light has now given a powerful impetus to the invention and introduction of effective gas-lamps, and amongst inventors of recent years no name is, perhaps, in this respect so well known as the name of Sugg. As long as gas retained almost the monopoly, there was no incentive to the gas companies to produce an effective light cheaply; but now that the question of the relative cheapness of gas and electricity is being actively discussed, the gas companies, true to the instinct of self-preservation, seem determined to show what can be done when gas is consumed in a scientific manner.

In order to understand how best a burner should be constructed in order that the gas that is burnt should give the greatest possible amount of illumination, let us consider for a moment the composition of the gas flame. It consists of three parts, (1) an interior dark space, in which the elements of the gas are in an unconsumed state; (2) an inner ring around the former, whence the greatest amount of light is obtained, and in which are numerous particles of carbon at a white heat, each awaiting a supply of oxygen in order to bring about combustion; and (3) an outer ring of blue flame in which complete combustion has taken place, and from which the largest amount of heat is evolved.

The second of these portions of the flame corresponds with the “reducing” flame of the blow-pipe, since this part, if turned upon an oxide, will reduce it, i.e., abstract its oxygen from it. This part also corresponds with the jet of the Bunsen burner, when the holes are closed by which otherwise air would mingle with the gas, or with the flame from a gas-stove when the gas ignites beneath the proper igniting-jets, and which gives consequently a white or yellow flame.

The third portion, on the other hand, corresponds with the “oxidising” flame of the blow-pipe, since it gives up oxygen to bodies that are thirsting for it. This also corresponds with the ordinary blue flame of the Bunsen burner, and with the blue flame of gas-stoves where heat, and not light, is required, the blue flame in both cases being caused by the admixture of air with the gas.

Thus, in order that gas may give the best illumination, we must increase the yellow or white space of carbon particles at a white heat, and a burner that will do this, and at the same time hold the balance so that unconsumed particles of carbon shall not escape in the way of smoke, will give the most successful illuminating results. With this end in view the addition of albo-carbon to a bulb in the gas-pipe has proved very successful, and the incandescent gas-jet is constructed on exactly the same chemical principle. The invention of burners which brought about this desirable end has doubtless not been without effect in acting as a powerful obstacle to the widespread introduction of the electric light.

Without entering into details of the manufacture of gas, it will be as well just to glance at the principal parts of the apparatus used.

The gasometer, as it has erroneously been called, is a familiar object to most people, not only to sight but unfortunately also to the organs of smell. It is in reality of course only the gas-holder, in which the final product of distillation of the coal is stored, and from which the gas immediately passes into the distributing mains.

The first, and perhaps, most important portion of the apparatus used in gas-making is the series of retorts into which the coal is placed, and from which, by the application of heat, the various volatile products distil over. These retorts are huge cast-iron vessels, encased in strong brick-work, usually five in a group, and beneath which a large furnace is kept going until the process is complete. Each retort has an iron exit pipe affixed to it, through which the gases generated by the furnace are carried off. The exit pipes all empty themselves into what is known as the hydraulic main, a long horizontal cylinder, and in this the gas begins to deposit a portion of its impurities. The immediate products of distillation are, after steam and air, gas, tar, ammoniacal liquor, sulphur in various forms, and coke, the last being left behind in the retort. In the hydraulic main some of the tar and ammoniacal liquor already begin to be deposited. The gas passes on to the condenser, which consists of a number of U-shaped pipes. Here the impurities are still further condensed out, and are collected in the tar-pit whilst the gas proceeds, still further lightened of its impurities. It may be mentioned that the temperature of the gas in the condenser is reduced to about 60 deg. F., but below this some of the most valuable of the illuminants of coal-gas would commence to be deposited in liquid form, and care has to be taken to prevent a greater lowering of temperature. A mechanical contrivance known as the exhauster is next used, by which the gas is, amongst other things, helped forward in its onward movement through the apparatus. The gas then passes to the washers or scrubbers, a series of tall towers, from which water is allowed to fall as a fine spray, and by means of which large quantities of ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid and oxide, and cyanogen compounds, are removed. In the scrubber the water used in keeping the coke, with which it is filled, damp, absorbs these compounds, and the union of the ammonia with certain of them takes place, resulting in the formation of carbonate of ammonia (smelling salts), sulphide and sulphocyanide of ammonia.

Hitherto the purification of the gas has been brought about by mechanical means, but the gas now enters the “purifier,” in which it undergoes a further cleansing, but this time by chemical means.

The agent used is either lime or hydrated oxide of iron, and by their means the gas is robbed of its carbonic acid and the greater part of its sulphur compounds. The process is then considered complete, and the gas passes on into the water chamber over which the gas-holder is reared, and in which it rises through the water, forcing the huge cylinder upward according to the pressure it exerts.

The gas-holder is poised between a number of upright pillars by a series of chains and pulleys, which allow of its easy ascent or descent according as the supply is greater or less than that drawn from it by the gas mains.

When we see the process which is necessary in order to obtain pure gas, we begin to appreciate to what an extent the atmosphere is fouled when many of the products of distillation, which, as far as the production of gas is concerned, may be called impurities, are allowed to escape free without let or hindrance. In these days of strict sanitary inspection it seems strange that the air in the neighbourhood of gas-works is still allowed to become contaminated by the escape of impure compounds from the various portions of the gas-making apparatus. Go where one may, the presence of these compounds is at once apparent to the nostrils within a none too limited area around them, and yet their deleterious effects can be almost reduced to a minimum by the use of proper purifying agents, and by a scientific oversight of the whole apparatus. It certainly behoves all sanitary authorities to look well after any gas-works situated within their districts.

Now let us see what these first five products of distillation actually are.

Firstly, house-gas. Everybody knows what house-gas is. It cannot, however, be stated to be any one gas in particular, since it is a mechanical mixture of at least three different gases, and often contains small quantities of others.

A very large proportion consists of what is known as marsh-gas, or light carburetted hydrogen. This occurs occluded or locked up in the pores of the coal, and often oozes out into the galleries of coal-mines, where it is known as firedamp (German dampf, vapour). It is disengaged wherever vegetable matter has fallen and has become decayed. If it were thence collected, together with an admixture of ten times its volume of air, a miniature coal-mine explosion could be produced by the introduction of a match into the mixture. Alone, however, it burns with a feebly luminous flame, although to its presence our house-gas owes a great portion of its heating power. Marsh-gas is the first of the series of hydro-carbons known chemically as the paraffins, and is an extremely light substance, being little more than half the weight of an equal bulk of air. It is composed of four atoms of hydrogen to one of carbon (CH₄).

Marsh-gas, together with hydrogen and the monoxide of carbon, the last of which burns with the dull blue flame often seen at the surface of fires, particularly coke and charcoal fires, form about 87 per cent. of the whole volume of house-gas, and are none of them anything but poor illuminants.

The illuminating power of house-gas depends on the presence therein of olefiant gas (ethylene), or, as it is sometimes termed, heavy carburetted hydrogen. This is the first of the series of hydro-carbons known as the olefines, and is composed of two atoms of carbon to every four atoms of hydrogen (C₂H₄). Others of the olefines are present in minute quantities. These assist in increasing the illuminosity, which is sometimes greatly enhanced, too, by the presence of a small quantity of benzene vapour. These illuminants, however, constitute but about 6 per cent. of the whole.

Added to these, there are four other usual constituents which in no way increase the value of gas, but which rather detract from it. They are consequently as far as possible removed as impurities in the process of gas-making. These are nitrogen, carbonic acid gas, and the destructive sulphur compounds, sulphuretted hydrogen and carbon bisulphide vapour. It is to the last two to which are to be attributed the injurious effects which the burning of gas has upon pictures, books, and also the tarnishing which metal fittings suffer where gas is burnt, since they give rise to the formation of oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid), which is being incessantly poured into the air. Of course the amount so given off is little as compared with that which escapes from a coal fire, but, fortunately for the inmates of the room, in this case the greater quantity goes up the chimney; this, however, is but a method of postponing the evil day, until the atmosphere becomes so laden with impurities that what proceeds at first up the chimney will finally again make its way back through the doors and windows. A recent official report tells us that, in the town, of St Helen’s alone, sufficient sulphur escapes annually into the atmosphere to finally produce 110,580 tons of sulphuric acid, and a computation has been made that every square mile of land in London is deluged annually with 180 tons of the same vegetation-denuding acid. It is a matter for wonder that any green thing continues to exist in such places at all.

The chief constituents of coal-gas are, therefore, briefly as follows:

 (1)  Hydrogen,
(2)  Marsh-gas (carburetted hydrogen or fire-damp),
(3)  Carbon monoxide,
(4)  Olefiant gas (ethylene, or heavy carburetted hydrogen), with other olefines,
(5)  Nitrogen,
(6)  Carbonic acid gas,
(7)  Sulphuretted hydrogen,
(8) Carbon bisulphide (vapour),

the last four being regarded as impurities, which are removed as far as possible in the manufacture.

In the process of distillation of the coal, we have seen that various other important substances are brought into existence. The final residue of coke, which is impregnated with the sulphur which has not been volatilised in the form of sulphurous gases, we need scarcely more than mention here. But the gas-tar and the ammoniacal liquor are two important products which demand something more than our casual attention. At one time regarded by gas engineers as unfortunately necessary nuisances in the manufacture of gas, they have both become so valuable on account of materials which can be obtained from them, that they enable gas itself to be sold now at less than half its original price. The waste of former generations is being utilised in this, and an instance is recorded in which tar, which was known to have been lying useless at the bottom of a canal for years, has been purchased by a gas engineer for distilling purposes. It has been estimated that about 590,000 tons of coal-tar are distilled annually.

Tar in its primitive condition has been used, as every one is aware, for painting or tarring a variety of objects, such as barges and palings, in fact, as a kind of protection to the object covered from the ravages of insects or worms, or to prevent corrosion when applied to metal piers. But it is worthy of a better purpose, and is capable of yielding far more useful and interesting substances than even the most imaginative individual could have dreamed of fifty years ago.

In the process of distillation, the tar, after standing in tanks for some time, in order that any ammoniacal liquor which may be present may rise to the surface and be drawn off, is pumped into large stills, where a moderate amount of heat is applied to it. The result is that some of the more volatile products pass over and are collected in a receiver. These first products are known as first light oils, or crude coal-naphtha, and to this naphtha all the numerous natural naphthas which have been discovered in various portions of the world, and to which have been applied numerous local names, bear a very close resemblance. Such an one, for instance, was that small but famous spring at Biddings, in Derbyshire, from which the late Mr Young Paraffin Young obtained his well-known paraffin oil, which gave the initial impetus to what has since developed into a trade of immense proportions in every quarter of the globe.

After a time the crude coal-naphtha ceases to flow over, and the heat is increased. The result is that a fresh series of products, known as medium oils, passes over, and these oils are again collected and kept separate from the previous series. These in turn cease to flow, when, by a further increase of heat, what are known as the heavy oils finally pass over, and when the last of these, green grease, as it is called, distils over, pitch alone is left in the still. Pitch is used to a large extent in the preparation of artificial asphalte, and also of a fuel known as “briquettes.”

The products thus obtained at the various stages of the process are themselves subjected to further distillation, and by the exercise of great care, requiring the most delicate and accurate treatment, a large variety of oils is obtained, and these are retailed under many and various fanciful names.

One of the most important and best known products of the fractional distillation of crude coal-naphtha is that known as benzene, or benzole, (C₆H₆). This, in its unrefined condition, is a light spirit which distils over at a point somewhat below the boiling point of water, but a delicate process of rectification is necessary to produce the pure spirit. Other products of the same light oils are toluene and xylene.

Benzene of a certain quality is of course a very familiar and useful household supplement. It is sometimes known and sold as benzene collas, and is used for removing grease from clothing, cleaning kid gloves, &c. If pure it is in reality a most dangerous spirit, being very inflammable; it is also extremely volatile, so much so that, if an uncorked bottle be left in a warm room where there is a fire or other light near, its vapour will probably ignite. Should the vapour become mixed with air before ignition, it becomes a most dangerous explosive, and it will thus be seen how necessary it is to handle the article in household use in a most cautious manner. Being highly volatile, a considerable degree of cold is experienced if a drop be placed on the hand and allowed to evaporate.

Benzene, which is only a compound of carbon and hydrogen, was first discovered by Faraday in 1825; it is now obtained in large quantities from coal-tar, not so much for use as benzene; is for its conversion, in the first place, by the action of nitric acid, into nitro-benzole, a liquid having an odour like the oil of bitter almonds, and which is much used by perfumers under the name of essence de mirbane; and, in the second place, for the production from this nitro-benzole of the far-famed aniline. After the distillation of benzene from the crude coal-naphtha is completed, the chief impurities in the residue are charred and deposited by the action of strong sulphuric acid. By further distillation a lighter oil is given off, often known as artificial turpentine oil, which is used as a solvent for varnishes and lackers. This is very familiar to the costermonger fraternity as the oil which is burned in the flaring lamps which illuminate the New Cut or the Elephant and Castle on Saturday and other market nights.

By distillation of the heavy oils, carbolic acid and commercial anthracene are produced, and by a treatment of the residue, a white and crystalline substance known as naphthalin (C₁₀H₈) is finally obtained.

Thus, by the continued operation of the chemical process known as fractional distillation of the immediate products of coal-tar, these various series of useful oils are prepared.

The treatment is much the same which has resulted in the production of paraffin oil, to which we have previously referred, and an account of the production of coal-oils would be very far from satisfactory, which made no mention of the production of similar commodities by the direct distillation of shale. Oil-shales, or bituminous shales, exist in all parts of the world, and may be regarded as mineral matter largely impregnated by the products of decaying vegetation. They therefore greatly resemble some coals, and really only differ therefrom in degree, in the quantity of vegetable matter which they contain. Into the subject of the various native petroleums which have been found for these rock-oils are better known as petroleums in South America, in Burmah (Rangoon Oil), at Baku, and the shores of the Caspian, or in the United States of America, we need not enter, except to note that in all probability the action of heat on underground bituminous strata of enormous extent has been the cause of their production, just as on a smaller scale the action of artificial heat has forced the reluctant shale to give up its own burden of mineral oil. However, previous to 1847, although native mineral oil had been for some years a recognised article of commerce, the causes which gave rise to the oil-wells, and the source, probably a deep-seated one, of the supply of oil, does not appear to have been well known, or at least was not enquired after. But in that year Mr Young, a chemist at Manchester, discovered that by distilling some petroleum, which he obtained from a spring at Riddings in Derbyshire, he was able to procure a light oil, which he used for burning in lamps, whilst the heavier product which he also obtained proved a most useful lubricant for machinery. This naturally distilled oil was soon found to be similar to that oil which was noticed dripping from the roof of a coal-mine. Judging that the coal, being under the influence of heat, was the cause of the production of the oil, Mr Young tested this conclusion by distilling the coal itself. Success attended his endeavour thus to procure the oil, and indelibly Young stamped his name upon the roll of famous men, whose industrial inventions have done so much towards the accomplishment of the marvellous progress of the present century. From the distillation he obtained the well-known Young’s Paraffin Oil, and the astonishing developments of the process which have taken place since he obtained his patent in 1850, for the manufacture of oils and solid paraffin, must have been a source of great satisfaction to him before his death, which occurred in 1883.

Cannel coal, Boghead or Bathgate coal, and bituminous shales of various qualities, have all been requisitioned for the production of oils, and from these various sources the crude naphthas, which bear a variety of names according to some peculiarity in their origin, or place of occurrence, are obtained. Boghead coal, also known as “Torebanehill mineral,” gives Boghead naphtha, while the crude naphtha obtained from shales is often quoted as shale-oil. In chemical composition these naphthas are closely related to one another, and by fractional distillation of them similar series of products are obtained as those we have already seen as obtained from the crude coal-naphtha of coal-tar.

In the direct distillation of cannel-coal for the production of paraffin, it is necessary that the perpendicular tubes or retorts into which the coal is placed be heated only to a certain temperature, which is considerably lower than that applied when the object is the production of coal-gas. By this means nearly all the volatile matters pass over in the form of condensible vapours, and the crude oils are at once formed, from whence are obtained at different temperatures various volatile ethers, benzene, and artificial turpentine oil or petroleum spirit. After these, the well-known safety-burning paraffin oil follows, but it is essential that the previous three volatile products be completely cleared first, since, mixed with air, they form highly dangerous explosives. To the fact that the operation is carried on in the manufactories with great care and accuracy can only be attributed the comparative rareness of explosions of the oil used in households.

After paraffin, the heavy lubricating oils are next given off, still increasing the temperature, and, the residue being in turn subjected to a very low temperature, the white solid substance known as paraffin, so much used for making candles, is the result. By a different treatment of the same residue is produced that wonderful salve for tender skins, cuts, and burns, known popularly as vaseline. Probably no such widely-advertised remedial substance has so deserved its success as this universally-used waste product of petroleum.

We have noticed the fact that in order to procure safety-burning oils, it is absolutely necessary that the more volatile portions be completely distilled over first. By Act of Parliament a test is applied to all oils which are intended for purposes of illumination, and the test used consists of what is known as the flashing-point. Many of the more volatile ethers, which are highly inflammable, are given off even at ordinary temperatures, and the application of a light to the oil will cause the volatile portion to “flash,” as it is called. A safety-burning oil, according to the Act, must not flash under 100 deg. Fahrenheit open test, and all those portions which flash at a less temperature must be volatilised off before the residue can be deemed a safe oil. It seems probable that the flashing-point will sooner or later be raised.

One instance may be cited to show how necessary it is that the native mineral oils which have been discovered should have this effectual test applied to them.

When the oil-wells were first discovered in America, the oil was obtained simply by a process of boring, and the fountain of oil which was bored into at times was so prolific, that it rushed out with a force which carried all obstacles before it, and defied all control. In one instance a column of oil shot into the air to a height of forty feet, and defied all attempts to keep it under. In order to prevent further accident, all lights in the immediate neighbourhood were extinguished, the nearest remaining being at a distance of four hundred feet. But in this crude naphtha there was, as usual, a quantity of volatile spirit which was being given off even at the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. This soon became ignited, and with an explosion the column of oil was suddenly converted into a roaring column of fire. The owner of the property was thrown a distance of twenty feet by the explosion, and soon afterwards died from the burns which he had received from it. Such an accident could not now, however, happen. The tapping, stopping, and regulating of gushing wells can now be more effectually dealt with, and in the process of refining; the most inflammable portions are separated, with a result that, as no oil is used in the country which flashes under 100 deg. F. open test, and as our normal temperature is considerably less than this, there is little to be feared in the way of explosion if the Act be complied with.

When the results of Mr Young’s labours became publicly known, a number of companies were started with the object of working on the lines laid down in his patent, and these not only in Great Britain but also in the United States, whither quantities of cannel coal were shipped from England and other parts to feed the retorts. In 1860, according to the statistics furnished, some seventy factories were established in the United States alone with the object of extracting oil from coal and other mineral sources, such as bituminous shale, etc. When Young’s patent finally expired, a still greater impetus was given to its production, and the manufacture would probably have continued to develop were it not that attention had, two years previously, been forcibly turned to those discoveries of great stores of natural oil in existence beneath a comparatively thin crust of earth, and which, when bored into, spouted out to tremendous heights.

The discovery of these oil-fountains checked for a time the development of the industry, but with the great production there has apparently been a greatly increased demand for it, and the British industry once again appears to thrive, until even bituminous shales have been brought under requisition for their contribution to the national wealth.

Were it not for the nuisance and difficulty experienced in the proper cleaning and trimming of lamps, there seems no other reason why mineral oil should not in turn have superseded the use of gas, even as gas had, years before, superseded the expensive animal and vegetable oils which had formerly been in use.

Although this great development in the use of mineral oils has taken place only within the last thirty years, it must not be thought that their use is altogether of modern invention. That they were not altogether unknown in the fifth century before Christ is a matter of certainty, and at the time when the Persian Empire was at the zenith of its glory, the fires in the temples of the fire-worshippers were undoubtedly kept fed by the natural petroleum which the districts around afforded. It is thought by some that the legend which speaks of the fire which came down from heaven, and which lit the altars of the Zoroastrians, may have had its origin in the discovery of a hitherto unknown petroleum spring. More recently, the remarks of Marco Polo in his account of his travels in A.D. 1260 and following years, are particularly interesting as showing that, even then, the use of mineral oil for various purposes was not altogether unknown. He says that on the north of Armenia the Greater is “Zorzania, in the confines of which a fountain is found, from which a liquor like oil flows, and though unprofitable for the seasoning of meat, yet is very fit for the supplying of lamps, and to anoint other things; and this natural oil flows constantly, and that in plenty enough to lade camels.”

From this we can infer that the nature of the oil was entirely unknown, for it was a “liquor like oil,” and was also, strange to say, “unprofitable for the seasoning of meat”! In another place in Armenia, Marco Polo states that there was a fountain “whence rises oil in such abundance that a hundred ships might be at once loaded with it. It is not good for eating, but very fit for fuel, for anointing the camels in maladies of the skin, and for other purposes; for which reason people come from a great distance for it, and nothing else is burned in all this country.”

The remedial effects of the oil, when used as an ointment, were thus early recognised, and the far-famed vaseline of the present day may be regarded as the lineal descendent, so to speak, of the crude medicinal agent to which Marco Polo refers.

The term asphalt has been applied to so many and various mixtures, that one scarcely associates it with natural mineral pitch which is found in some parts of the world. From time immemorial this compact, bituminous, resinous mineral has been discovered in masses on the shores of the Dead Sea, which has in consequence received the well-known title of Lake Asphaltites. Like the naphthas and petroleums which have been noticed, this has had its origin in the decomposition of vegetable matter, and appears to be thrown up in a liquid form by the volcanic energies which, are still believed to be active in the centre of the lake, and which may be existent beneath a stratum, or bed, of oil-producing bitumen.

In connection with the formation of this substance, the remarks of Sir Charles Lyell, the great geologist, may well be quoted, as showing the transformation of vegetable matter into petroleum, and afterwards into solid-looking asphalt. At Trinidad is a lake of bitumen which is a mile and a half in circumference. “The Orinoco has for ages been rolling down great quantities of woody and vegetable bodies into the surrounding sea, where, by the influence of currents and eddies, they may be arrested, and accumulated in particular places. The frequent occurrence of earthquakes and other indications of volcanic action in those parts, lend countenance to the opinion that these vegetable substances may have undergone, by the agency of subterranean fire, those transformations or chemical changes which produce petroleum; and this may, by the same causes, be forced up to the surface, where, by exposure to the air, it becomes inspissated, and forms those different varieties of earth-pitch or asphaltum so abundant in the island.”

It is interesting to note also that it was obtained, at an ancient period, from the oil-fountains of Is, and that it was put to considerable use in the embalming of the bodies of the Egyptians. It appears, too, to have been employed in the construction of the walls of Babylon, and thus from very early times these wonderful products and results of decayed vegetation have been brought into use for the service of man.

Aniline has been previously referred to as having been prepared from nitro-benzole, or essence de mirbane, and its preparation, by treating this substance with iron-filings and acetic acid, was one of the early triumphs of the chemists who undertook the search after the unknown contained in gas-tar. It had previously been obtained from oils distilled from bones. The importance of the substance lies in the fact that, by the action of various chemical reagents, a series of colouring matters of very great richness are formed, and these are the well-known aniline dyes.

As early as 1836, it was discovered that aniline, when heated with chloride of lime, acquired a beautiful blue tint. This discovery led to no immediate practical result, and it was not until twenty-one years after that a further discovery was made, which may indeed be said to have achieved a world-wide reputation. It was found that, by adding bichromate of potash to a solution of aniline and sulphuric acid, a powder was obtained from which the dye was afterwards extracted, which is known as mauve. Since that time dyes in all shades and colours have been obtained from the same source. Magenta was the next dye to make its appearance, and in the fickle history of fashion, probably no colours have had such extraordinary runs of popularity as those of mauve and magenta. Every conceivable colour was obtained in due course from the same source, and chemists began to suspect that, in the course of time, the colouring matter of dyer’s madder, which was known as alizarin, would also be obtained therefrom. Hitherto this had been obtained from the root of the madder-plant, but by dint of careful and well-reasoned research, it was obtained by Dr Groebe, from a solid crystalline coal-tar product, known as anthracene, (C₁₂H₁₄). This artificial alizarin yields colours which are purer than those of natural madder, and being derived from what was originally regarded as a waste product, its cost of production is considerably cheaper.

We have endeavoured thus far to deal with (1) gas, and (2) tar, the two principal products in the distillation of coal. We have yet to say a few words concerning the useful ammoniacal liquor, and the final residue in the retorts, i.e., coke.

The ammoniacal liquor which has been passing over during distillation of the coal, and which has been collecting in the hydraulic main and in other parts of the gas-making apparatus, is set aside to be treated to a variety of chemical reactions, in order to wrench from it its useful constituents. Amongst these, of course, ammonia stands in the first rank, the others being comparatively unimportant. In order to obtain this, the liquor is first of all neutralised by being treated with a quantity of acid, which converts the principal constituent of the liquor, viz., carbonate of ammonia (smelling salts), into either sulphate of ammonia, or chloride of ammonia, familiarly known as sal-ammoniac, according as sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid is the acid used. Thus carbonate of ammonia with sulphuric acid will give sulphate of ammonia, but carbonate of ammonia with hydrochloric acid will give sal-ammoniac (chloride of ammonia). By a further treatment of these with lime, or, as it is chemically known, oxide of calcium, ammonia is set free, whilst chloride of lime (the well-known disinfectant), or sulphate of lime (gypsum, or “plaster of Paris” ), is the result.

Thus:

Sulphate of ammonia + lime = plaster of Paris + ammonia.

or,

Sal-ammoniac + lime = chloride of lime + ammonia.

Ammonia itself is a most powerful gas, and acts rapidly upon the eyes. It has a stimulating effect upon the nerves. It is not a chemical element, being composed of three parts of hydrogen by weight to one of nitrogen, both of which elements alone are very harmless, and, the latter indeed, very necessary to human life. Ammonia is fatal to life, producing great irritation of the lungs.

It has also been called “hartshorn,” being obtained by destructive distillation of horn and bone. The name “ammonia” is said to have been derived from the fact that it was first obtained by the Arabs near the temple of Jupiter Ammon, in Lybia, North Africa, from the excrement of camels, in the form of sal-ammoniac. There are always traces of it in the atmosphere, especially in the vicinity of large towns and manufactories where large quantities of coal are burned.

Coke, if properly prepared, should consist of pure carbon. Good coal should yield as much as 80 per cent. of coke, but owing to the unsatisfactory manner of its production, this proportion is seldom yielded, whilst the coke which is familiar to householders, being the residue left in the retorts after gas-making, usually contains so large a proportion of sulphur as to make its combustion almost offensive. No doubt the result of its unsatisfactory preparation has been that it has failed to make its way into households as it should have done, but there is also another objection to its use, namely, the fact that, owing to the quantity of oxygen required in its combustion, it gives rise to feelings of suffocation where insufficient ventilation of the room is provided.

Large quantities of coke are, however, consumed in the feeding of furnace fires, and in the heating of boilers of locomotives, as well as in metallurgical operations; and in order to supply the demand, large quantities of coal are “coked,” a process by which the volatile products are completely combusted, pure coke remaining behind. This process is therefore the direct opposite to that of “distillation,” by which the volatile products are carefully collected and re-distilled.

The sulphurous impurities which are always present in the coal, and which are, to a certain extent, retained in coke made at the gas-works, themselves have a value, which in these utilitarian days is not long likely to escape the attention of capitalists. In coal, bands of bright shining iron pyrites are constantly seen, even in the homely scuttle, and when coal is washed, as it is in some places, the removal of the pyrites increases the value of the coal, whilst it has a value of its own.

The conversion of the sulphur which escapes from our chimneys into sulphuretted hydrogen, and then into sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, has already been referred to, and we can only hope that in these days when every available source of wealth is being looked up, and when there threatens to remain nothing which shall in the future be known as “waste,” that the atmosphere will be spared being longer the receptacle for the unowned and execrated brimstone of millions of fires and furnaces.