1. MUHARRAM. Muharram, the name of the first month of the Muhammadan year, has now become the name by which are known the days of mourning spent by the Shia’hs in commemoration of the martyrdoms of ’Ali and of his two sons Hasan and Husain. The historical events thus referred to have been already described in the third chapter, so that it is only necessary now to give an account of the ceremonies connected with the Muharram. They differ in different countries. The following is a description of an Indian Muharram.

Some days previous to the feast, the ’Ashur Khana (literally, ten-day house) is prepared. As soon as the new moon appears, the people gather together in the various ’Ashur Khanas, and offer a Fatiha over some sherbet or some sugar in the name of Husain. The Fatiha concludes thus: “O God, grant the reward of this to the soul of Husain.” The sherbet and sugar are then given to the poor. Then they mark a spot for the Allawa, or hole for the bonfire which is to be lit. Every night during the festival these fires are kindled, and the people, both old and young, fence across the fire with swords or sticks, and jump about calling out: “’Ali! Noble Husain! Noble Husain! Dulha! Dulha! Bridegroom! Bridegroom! Friend! &c.” These words they repeat hundreds of times.

In some parts of the country they erect an Imam Bara (Imam-house). This is often a substantial building, frequently used afterwards as a mausoleum for the founder and his family. In South India the ’Ashur Khana only is known. This is generally a temporary structure, or some large hall fitted up for the occasion. Sometimes the walls are draped with black cloth, bordered with texts of the Quran written in a large and elegant style. The place is brilliantly illuminated. On one side stands the Taziahs or Tabuts structures made of bamboos covered with tinsel and profusely ornamented. They are intended to represent the mausoleum erected on the plains of Karbala over the remains of Husain. Sometimes the Taziah is constructed to represent the Prophet’s tomb at Madina. Large sums of money are spent on these Taziahs, which when lighted up have a very elegant appearance. At the back of the Taziahs are laid the several articles similar to those supposed to have been used by Husain at Karbala, a turban of gold, a rich sword, a shield, a bow and arrow. The Mimbar, or pulpit is so placed that the speaker can face Mecca. The ’Alams, or standards, which are commonly made of copper and brass, though occasionally of gold or of silver, are placed against the walls. The usual standard is that of a hand placed on a pole. This is emblematic of the five members who compose the family of the Prophet, and is the special standard of the Shia’hs. These standards have many different names, such as the standard of the palm of ’Ali, the Lady Fatima’s standard, the standard of the Horse-shoe, to represent the shoe of Husain’s swift horse, and others too numerous to mention. Mirrors, chandeliers and coloured lanterns add lustre to the scene.

Every evening large crowds of people assemble in these ’Ashur Khanas. In the centre, on a slightly raised platform a band of singers chant the Marsiya, an elegiac poem in honour of the martyred Husain. It is a monotonous performance lasting about an hour; but it has a wonderful effect on the audience, who, seated on the ground, listen patiently and attentively. At each pause the hearers beat their breasts, and say Husain! Husain! Real or stimulated grief often finds expression in groans and tears, though the more violent expression of the anguish felt is reserved for a later ceremony.

This over, the Waqi’a Khan (literally, narrator of events) ascends the Mimbar, or pulpit, and seats himself on the top, or on a lower step. He proceeds to relate the historical facts, adding many curious stories gathered from the vast heap of Traditions which have cast such a halo of glory around the martyr. Sometimes he becomes very excited, and the audience is stirred up to great enthusiasm. The following account is that of an eye-witness who passed an evening in an ’Ashur Khana. “The first Waqi’a Khan was a Persian who delivered a very eloquent oration in his own tongue. It was calm but effective. He was succeeded by an eloquent old gentleman who spoke rapidly in Hindustani at the top of his voice, then rose up, ran down the steps, and casting off his turban rushed in and out amongst the audience, vociferating vigorously all the while. The effect was marvellous, old and venerable men wept like little children, whilst from the adjoining Zanana was heard the bitter weeping of the women who, though not exposed to view, could hear all that was said. After a while, the assembly rose and formed two lines facing each other. A boy then chanted a few words and the whole assembly began, slowly at first, to sway their bodies to and fro, calling out ’Ali! ’Ali! Husain! Husain! Each one then began to beat his breast vigorously. The excitement at last became intense and the men in the rows looked like so many wild creatures.”

In some cases blood has been known to flow from the breast, so severe is the self-inflicted beating. This continues till they are well-nigh exhausted, when the whole company goes away to repeat the performance over again in some other ’Ashur Khana. A devout person will visit several each evening. During the day some pious Shia’hs recite the Quran.

During this season women who can read, visit the Zananas and chant Marsiyas to the ladies of the Harem, by whom this season of Muharram is celebrated with great earnestness.

For the first six days, nothing else takes place, but on the seventh day the ’Alam-i-Qasim is taken out in public procession. This is to represent the marriage of Qasim, the son of Hasan, to the favourite daughter of Husain, just before the death of the latter. The event is now commemorated by the bearing of Qasim’s standard in procession. It is usually borne by a man on horseback. If it is carried by a man on foot, he reels about like a drunken man to show his grief. The crowd shout out: Bridegroom! Bridegroom! After perambulating the principal thoroughfares, the people bring the standard back to its own ’Ashur Khana. As the standard which represents Qasim is supposed to be a martyr, it is then laid down, covered over, and treated as a corpse. Lamentation is made over it as for one dead. Sherbet is then produced, and a Fatiha is said, after which the standard is again set up in its own place.

The Neza, a lance or spear, with a lime on the top, to recall to remembrance the fact that Yezid caused Husain’s head to be thus carried about, is taken in procession from one place to another. The Na’l Sahib (literally, Mr. Horse-shoe) is the representation of a horse shoe, and is meant to remind the people of the swift horse of Husain. Vows are frequently made to this standard. Thus a woman may say to it: “Should I through your favour be blessed with offspring, I shall make it run in your procession.” If she attains her wish, the child when seven or eight years old has a small parasol placed in its hand and is made to run after the Na’l Sahib.

If two ’Alams, or standards, meet, they embrace each other, that is they are made to touch. Fatiha is then said and the respective processions pass on their way. The Buraq, supposed to be a fac-simile of the horse sent by Gabriel for Muhammad to make the night ascent to heaven (Ante. is also taken out.

On the evening before the tenth day, which according to the Muslim mode of computing time is the tenth night, the whole of the Tazias and the ’Alams are taken out in procession. It is a scene of great confusion, for men and boys disguised in all sorts of quaint devices run about. It is the carnival of the Musalman year.

On the following day, the ’Ashura, they kindle the fires in the Allawas, and say a Fatiha in each ’Ashur Khana. After this the ’Alams and the Tazias are taken away to a large open spot near water, which represents the plain of Karbala. Another Fatiha is said, the ornaments and decorations are taken off the Tazias, the frameworks of which are then cast into the water. Sometimes they are reserved for use the following year. The water reminds the people of the parching thirst which Husain felt before his death. Only the ’Alams, not the Buraqs nor the Na’l Sahibs, are immersed. The people then burn incense, recite the Marsiyas, return home and say Fatiha over the ’Alams, Buraqs, &c. On the evening of the 12th, they sit up all night reading the Quran, reciting Marsiyas and verses in the praise of Husain. On the 13th day, a quantity of food is cooked which, when a Fatiha has been said over it, is distributed to the poor. Some very pious Shia’hs celebrate the fortieth day after the first of Muharram. It is on this day, according to some accounts, that the head and body of Husain were reunited. It is known as the ’Id-i-sar wa tan (head and body feast).

The Sunnis do not, except as spectators, take any part in the Muharram ceremonies. Indeed, where the ruling power is not strong, there is often much ill-feeling aroused by the enthusiasm excited for all that concerns ’Ali and his family. The three first Khalifs are often well abused, and that no Sunni can bear with patience. The breach between the Sunni and the Shia’h is very wide, and the annual recurrence of the Muharram feast tends to keep alive the distinction.

The tenth day the ’Ashura is, however, a Sunnat feast and, as such, is observed by all Sunnis. It is considered to be a most excellent day, for on it God is said to have created Adam and Eve, His throne, heaven, hell, the seat of judgment, the tablet of decree, the pen, fate, life and death.

The Sunnis about three o’clock in the afternoon of this day prepare sherbet and khichri a dish composed of boiled rice and pulse mixed with clarified butter and spices. A Fatiha in the name of Husain and of those who were martyred with him is then said. The food is disposed of as usual in such cases. A Namaz of some nafl rak’ats is said and sometimes a Du’a is added. On this day also they go to the burial grounds and place flowers on, and say Fatiha over the graves of their friends.

Indian Musalmans have copied in their feast many Hindu ceremonies. The procession of the Tazias, and the casting of them into the water is very similar to the procession at the Hindu feast of the Durga Puja, when on the tenth day the Hindus cast the idol Durga, the wife of Siva, into the Ganges. The oblations offered at different shrines are similar to those offered by the Hindus, such as rice, clarified butter and flowers.

The Muhammadan form of worship was too simple for a country, in which an allegorical and idolatrous religion predominated, addressing itself to the senses and the imaginations rather than to the understanding and the heart; consequently the Musalman festivals have borrowed from it a variety of pagan rites, and a pompous and splendid ceremonial. While this has done much to add to the superstition of the Musalmans in India, it has no doubt softened their intolerant spirit. Though the Sunnis consider the Shia’h observances as impious, they look on with the contempt of indifference. The fact that the British Government punishes all who break the peace may have something to do with this. Still the Sunni and the Shia’h in India live on much better terms, and have more respect for each other than the Turk has for the Persian, or the Persian for the Turk. Some Musalman poets, indeed, are both Sunnis and Shia’hs. Thus Wali, begins his poem with a brief encomium on the four first Khalifs, and then bestows an eulogy on ’Ali and his sons Hasan and Husain whom he calls “Imams of the world.”

The following is a prayer used in a Fatiha for Ali:

I pray, “That God may deign for the sake of that pure soul, the ornament of the book of nature, the first of mortals after the Prophet, the star of mortals, the most precious jewel of the jewel-box of virtue, the lord of the high and the low, he who occupies a distinguished place on the bridge of eternity, the mihrab of the faith, he who sits upon the throne of the palace of the law, the ship of the sea of religion, the sun of the firmament of glory, the power of the arm of the Prophet, he who has merited access to the tabernacle of the Divine Unity, the most profound of all religious people, the resplendent brightness of the marvels of God, the father of victory, the Imam of the gate of heaven, the cup-bearer of the water of Kausar, he who has merited the praise of Muhammad, he who is the best of men, the holy martyr, the chief of Believers, the Imam of the Faithful, ’Ali, son of Abu Talib, ’Ali the victorious lion of the Most High. I pray that God for the sake of this holy Khalif may favourably hear the vows which I offer to Him.”

The following prayer occurs in a Fatiha said for Hasan and Husain:

I pray, “That the eternal God may deign to accept the vows which I make for the repose of the glorious souls of the two brave Imams, the martyrs well-beloved by God, the innocent victims of wickedness, the blessed Abu Muhammad Al-Hasan and Abu ’Abd-Allah Al-Husain, and for the twelve Imams, and the fourteen pure ones, and for the seventy-two martyrs of the plain of Karbala.”

2. AKHIR-I-CHAR SHAMBA. This feast is held on the last Wednesday of the month Safar. It is kept in commemoration of the fact, that, as on this day, the Prophet experienced some mitigation of the disorder which in the next month terminated his life. Sweet cakes are prepared, and Fatihas in the name of the Prophet are said over them; but the most extraordinary custom is the drinking of the seven Salams. A plantain, or a mango tree leaf, or a piece of paper is taken to a Mulla, or a religious teacher, who writes seven short sentences from the Quran upon it. The writing whilst still wet is washed off, and the mixture drunk by the person for whom it was written. Peace and happiness are thus ensured for the future. The seven Salams are: (1) “Peace! shall be the word on the part of a merciful Lord.” (Sura xxxv. (2) “Peace be on Noah throughout the worlds.” (Sura xxxvi. (3) “Peace be on Abraham.” (Sura xxxvi. (4) “Peace be on Moses and Aaron.” (Sura xxxvi. (5) “Peace be on Elias.” (Sura xxxvi. (6) “Peace be on you, ye have been good; enter into Paradise.” (Sura xxxi. (7) “It is peace till the breaking of the morn.” (Sura xcvi. The Shia’hs consider this an unlucky day. They call it “Char Shamba-i-Suri.” The “Wednesday of the Trumpet;” that is, of the trumpet of the last day. The Sunnis, on the other hand, rejoice in the day, and esteem it an excellent and auspicious season.

3. BARA WAFAT. This feast is held on the twelfth day of the month Rabi’-ul-Awwal. The name is derived from bara, twelve and wafat, death, because many suppose that on this day the Prophet died. According to a well-known Muslim writer “the terrific intelligence, circulating throughout the world, produced universal consternation, and all hastened to offer to God their vows and prayers for the repose of the Prophet’s soul.” Others, however, maintain that he died on the second of the month and, as there is some doubt on the subject, many persons make a Fatiha every day, from the first to the twelfth of the month inclusive. Those who keep the feast as Bara Wafat observe the ceremony called Sandal on the previous evening, and the ’Urs, that is, the prayers and the oblations, on the twelfth. The Sandal consists in making a perfumed embrocation from sandal wood. This is then placed into a vessel and carried in procession to the ’Id-gah, or to the place where Fatiha will be said. It is then distributed to the people. It is a sort of public notice on the eve of a Feast day, or of a Saint’s day, that on the morrow the usual prayers and offerings will be made in such and such a place. On the morning of the twelfth, the Quran is read in the Mosque, or in private houses: then food is cooked and Fatihas are said.

Some persons possess a Qadam-i-Rasul, or footstep of the Prophet. This is a stone with the impression of a footstep on it. It is a sacred thing and on this day the place in which it is kept is elegantly decorated. When a company has assembled, some persons appointed for the purpose, repeat the story of the birth, miracles and death of the Prophet. Portions of the Quran are read and the Darud is said.

In Madras, and in some other parts, it is more customary to keep this day, not as the anniversary of the death of the Prophet, but as the “’Jashn-i-milad-i-Sharif,” the “Feast of the noble birth.” The practical duties are the same. Instead of the Qadam-i-Rasul, the Asar-i-Sharif is exhibited. This is supposed to be a real portion of the hair of the Prophet’s beard and moustache. It is said to possess the miraculous property of growing again when a portion is broken off. On this day it is put into rose water which those present then drink and rub on their eyes. Great virtue is attached to this proceeding. In the Asar Khana, or house in which this hair is kept Fatihas, Daruds, &c., are repeated.

The observance of this festival is neither wajib nor sunnat, but mustahab. It is generally kept, and it is a very rare thing to meet a person who does not believe in the miraculous growth of the Asar-i-Sharif.

4. SHAB BARAT. This feast, the name of which signifies the “night of the record,” is held on the fourteenth day of the month Sh’aban. The ’Arfa, or vigil is kept on the preceding day. It is commonly but erroneously called Shab-i-Barat.

The word Barat signifies a book or record. It is said that God on this night registers in the Barat all the actions men are to perform during the ensuing year. On the thirteenth day food is prepared for the poor and a Fatiha for the benefit of deceased ancestors and relatives is said over it. When all in the house are assembled, the Surat-ul-Fatiha is read once, the Surat-ul-Iklas (112) three times, the Ayat-ul-Kursi once, and then the Darud. After this a prayer is offered, in which God is asked to transfer the reward of this Service, and of the charity shown in the gift of food to the poor, to the souls of deceased relatives and friends of this family. This petition is offered in the name of the Prophet. The men then go to the Mosque and after the Namaz-i-’Isha they repeat a number of nafl rak’ats. This over, the Surat-ul-Ya Sin is read three times. It must be done with the niyyat, intention. The first time, the intention is that the worshipper may have a long life; the second time, that his means of subsistence may be increased; the third time, that he may be protected from evil. The Sura-i-Dukhan (144) is then read with the same intentions. Any other portions may then be read. After this those present rise, and go to the various cemeteries. On the way they purchase flowers which are afterwards strewn on the graves. A Fatiha is then said. If the worshipper has no relatives or friends buried there, prayer is offered for the benefit of the Arwah-i-Qubur, the souls of those there buried. The very pious spend the whole night in going from one cemetery to another.

These observances are neither farz, nor sunnat, but nawafil, (sing. nafl), works of supererogation. Still though they are bid’at, yet they are esteemed good and so are called bid’at-i-Hasana, or “excellent innovation.” The general merry-making of the fourteenth day has no religious signification. The night of the fifteenth is the Guy Fawkes night of Islam. Large sums of money are spent on fireworks, of which more are let off on this feast than at any other.

The following prayer occurs in the Fatiha: “O our God, by the merits of the Apostleship of Muhammad, grant that the lamps which are lit up on this holy night may be for the dead a pledge of the light eternal, which we pray Thee to shed on them. O God, admit them, we beseech Thee, unto the abode of eternal felicity.”

5. RAMAZAN AND ’ID-UL-FITR It is one of the five pillars of the practical religious duties to fast during the thirty days of the month Ramazan. The subject of fasting has been fully treated of in the preceding chapter; and so it is only necessary now to describe the other ceremonies connected with the religious observance of this month.

From the earliest days of Islam this month has been held in the greatest esteem by Muslims, for it was in this month that Muhammad used to retire for meditation, year after year, to the cave of Hira, situated on a low hill some few miles distant from Mecca. In the second year of the Hijra, or flight from Mecca, it was ordained that the month of Ramazan should be kept as a fast. “As to the month Ramazan, in which the Quran was sent down to be man’s guidance, and an explanation of that guidance, and of that illumination, as soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast.” (Sura i.

The Muslims had hitherto observed as the principal fast the ’Ashura, the tenth of Muharram. This fast was probably connected with the Jewish fast on the tenth day of the seventh month. “Also on the tenth day of this seventh month there shall be a day of atonement: it shall be an holy convocation unto you; and ye shall afflict your souls, &c.” (Leviticus xxii. Now, when Muhammad first went to Madina he had great hopes of winning over the Jews to his side; but when he failed he took every opportunity of making Islam differ as much as possible from Judaism. This was the reason why the Qibla was changed (Ante. , and that in the second year of his residence at Madina the fast of Ramazan was appointed. The reasons assigned by learned Muslims for the selection of this month, are that in Ramazan God gave to the previous prophets the revelations connected with their names, and that in this month the Quran was sent down from the Secret Tablet in the seventh heaven to the first or lowest, and that on the Laylut-ul-Qadr, or ‘night of power’ the first revelation was made to Muhammad. “Verily we have caused it (Quran) to descend on the ‘night of power.’ And who shall teach thee what the night of power is? The night of power excelleth a thousand nights.” (Sura xcvi-3). To illustrate the sacredness of this month the Prophet used to say that in it “the gates of Paradise are open, and the gates of hell are shut, and the devils are chained by the leg.” “Only those who observe it will be allowed to enter by the gate of heaven called Rayyan.” Those who keep the fast “will be pardoned all their past venial sins."

In making the fast one for the day, and none for the night, Muhammad doubtless had reference to the verse: “God wisheth you ease, but wisheth not your discomfort.” (Sura i.

The special ceremonies connected with the Ramazan are the Tarawih Namaz and ’Itikaf (retirement). The Tarawih prayers have been described already . Each night in Ramazan one-thirtieth part (sipara) of the Quran is recited in the Mosque. The duty of performing the ’Itikaf is a Sunnat-ul-maukadda, a very strict duty. The Mu’takif, one who makes ’Itikaf, must remain apart in a Mosque used for public services, and there meditate. Bukhari says that the Prophet made ’Itikaf the last ten days of each Ramazan, and that the practice was continued by his wives after his death. Usually a man should thus sit and meditate one of the days between the twentieth and the thirtieth of Ramazan. If his meditation is disturbed by any illegal interruption, another day should be devoted to it; but Imam Muhammad says: “The least legal time is one hour.” Some theologians hold that ’Itikaf is farz-i-kifaya, that is, if one person of a community does it the obligation does not rest on the others. If, however, a person makes a vow in Ramazan, then ’Itikaf is considered wajib. ’Itikaf can be performed at any time other than the last ten days of Ramazan, but then it is only mustahab, a work of supererogation. All the sects except the Shafa’ites hold that the Mu’takif must fast. He should also make the nizzat, or intention, of performing what he is about to do. The Mu’takif must not go out of the Mosque except for obviously necessary purposes, and for making the legal wazu and ghusl (purifications). At night he may eat, drink and sleep in the Mosque: acts quite unlawful at other times. He may speak with others on religious matters, and if a man of business, he may give orders with regard to the purchase and sale of merchandize, but on no account must any goods be brought to him. It is highly meritorious for him to read the Quran in an audible voice. By such an act he becomes a man of penetration, whose words are as powerful as a sharp sword.

When the thirty days have passed the fast is broken. This act is called Iftar, and the first day on which food is taken is called the ’Id-ul-Fitr the ‘Feast of the breaking of the fast.’ On that day the Sadqa, or alms are given before the Namaz is said in the Mosque. The Sadqa of the ’Id-ul-Fitr is confined to Muslims: no other persons receive it. If any one neglects to give these alms before the Namaz is said, he will not merit so great a reward as he otherwise would. The reason assigned for this is that, unless they are given early in the day, the poor cannot refresh themselves before coming to the Mosque for the Namaz. The Sadqa are given for the good of one’s own soul, for that of young children, slaves male and female Muslim or Infidel; but not for the spiritual benefit of one’s wife or elder children.

In South India, the Sadqa consists of a gift of sufficient rice to feed one person. When this has been done the people go to the Mosque saying, ’God is great! God is great!’ The Namaz is like that of a Friday, except that only two rak’ats are said, and the Khutba which is said after the Namaz is sunnat; whereas the Friday Khutba is said before the farz rak’ats, and is itself of farz obligation. After hearing the sermon, the people disperse, visit each other and thoroughly enjoy themselves.

A very usual form of the Khutba of the Id-ul-Fitr which is preached in Arabic is as follows:

SERMON ON THE ’ID-UL-FITR.

In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.

“Holy is God who has opened the door of mercy for those who fast, and in mercy and kindness has granted them the right of entrance into heaven. God is greater than all. There is no God save Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of praise. It is of His grace and favour that He rewards those who keep the fast. He has said: ’I will give in the future world houses and palaces, and many excellent blessings to those who fast. God is great! God is great! Holy is He who certainly sent the Quran to our Prophet in the month of Ramazan, and who sends angels to grant peace to all true believers. God is great! and worthy of all praise. We praise and thank Him for the ’Id-ul-Fitr, that great blessing; and we testify that beside Him there is no God. He is alone. He has no partner. This witness which we give to His Unity will be a cause of our safety here, and finally gain us an entrance to Paradise. Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) and all famous prophets are His slaves. He is the Lord of genii and of men. From Him comes mercy and peace upon Muhammad and his family, so long as the world shall last. God is greater than all. There is none beside Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of all praise. O company of Believers, O congregation of Muslims, the mercy of the True One is on you. He says that this Feast day is a blessing to you, and a curse to the unbelievers. Your fasting will not be rewarded, and your prayers will be stayed in their flight to heaven until you have given the sadqa. O congregation of Believers, to give alms is to you a wajib duty. Give to the poor some measures of grain or its money equivalent. Your duty in Ramazan was to say the Tarawih prayers, to make supplication to God, to sit and meditate (’Itikaf) and to read the Quran. The religious duties of the first ten days of Ramazan gain the mercy of God, those of the second ten merit His pardon; whilst those of the last ten save those who do them from the punishment of hell. God has declared that Ramazan is a noble month, for is not one of its nights, the Laylut-ul-Qadr, better than a thousand months? On that night Gabriel and the angels descended from heaven: till the morning breaks it is full of blessing. Its eloquent interpreter, and its clearest proof is the Quran, the Word of God, most Gracious. Holy is God who says in the Quran: “This word of God comes down in the month of Ramazan.” This is a guide for men, a distinguisher between right and wrong. O Believers, in such a month be present, obey the order of your God and fast; but let the sick and the travellers substitute some other days on which to fast so that no days be lost, and say: “God is great!” and praise Him. God has made the fast easy for you. O Believers, God will bless you and us by the grace of the Holy Quran. Every verse of it is a benefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is the Bestower, the Holy King, the Munificent, the Kind, the Nourisher, the Merciful, the Clement."

“The assemblies of the ladies on this ’Id are marked by all the amusements and indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy in their secluded state. Some receiving, others paying visits in covered conveyances; all doing honour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and splendid dress. The Zanana rings with festive songs and loud music, the cheerful meeting of friends, the distribution of presents to dependents, and remembrances to the poor; all is life and joy, cheerful bustle and amusement, on this happy day of ’Id, when the good lady of the Mansion sits in state to receive presents from inferiors and to grant proofs of her favour to others."

6. The Baqr-’Id. This is the most important Feast in the whole year. It is also known as the ’Id-i-Qurban, and as the ’Id-ul-Azha, commonly called the Id-uz-Zuha, the feast of sacrifice. In Turkey and in Egypt it is called Bairam. Its origin was as follows: A few months after the Hijra, or flight from Mecca, Muhammad, dwelling in Madina, observed that the Jews kept, on the tenth day of the seventh month, the great fast of the Atonement. A Tradition records that the Prophet asked them why they kept this fast. He was informed that it was a memorial of the deliverance of Moses and the children of Israel from the hands of Pharaoh. “We have a greater right in Moses than they,” said Muhammad, so he fasted with the Jews and commanded his followers to fast also. This was at the period of his mission when Muhammad was friendly with the Jews of Madina, who occasionally came to hear him preach. The Prophet also occasionally attended the synagogue. Then came the change of the Qibla from Jerusalem to Mecca, for the Jews were not so ready to change their creed as Muhammad had at first hoped. In the second year of the Hijra, Muhammad and his followers did not participate in the Jewish fast, for the Prophet now instituted the feast of the Baqr-’Id. The idolatrous Arabs had been in the habit of making an annual pilgrimage to Mecca at this season of the year. The offering of animals in sacrifice formed a part of the concluding ceremony of that pilgrimage. That portion the sacrifice of animals Muhammad adopted in the feast which now, at Madina, he substituted for the Jewish fast. This was well calculated to attract the attention of the Meccans and to gain the goodwill of the Arabs. Muhammad could not then make the pilgrimage to Mecca, for as yet there was a hostile feeling between the inhabitants of the two cities; but on the tenth day of the month Zu’l-Hajja, at the very time when the Arabs at Mecca were engaged in sacrificing victims, Muhammad went forth from his house at Madina, and assembling his followers instituted the Id-uz-Zuha or Baqr-’Id. Two young kids were brought before him. One he sacrificed and said: “O Lord! I sacrifice this for my whole people, all those who bear witness to Thy unity and to my mission. O Lord! this is for Muhammad and for the family of Muhammad.”

Great merit is obtained by all who keep this feast. ’Ayesha relates how the Prophet once said: “Man hath not done anything on the ’Id-ul-Azha more pleasing to God than spilling blood; for verily the animal sacrificed will come on the day of resurrection with its horns, hair and hoofs, and will make the scale of his good actions very heavy. Verily its blood reached the acceptance of God before it falleth upon the ground, therefore be joyful in it.”

Musalmans say that the Patriarch Abraham was ordered to sacrifice Ishmael, and that he made several ineffectual attempts to cut the throat of his son. Ishmael then said to his father: “It is through pity and compassion for me that you allow the knife to miss: blindfold yourself and then sacrifice me.” Abraham acted upon this advice, blindfolded himself, drew his knife, repeated the Bismillah, and, as he thought, cut the throat of his son; but, behold, in the meantime Gabriel had substituted a sheep for the lad. This event is commemorated in this feast.

On the day before the feast, the Arfa, or vigil, is kept. Food of various kinds is prepared, over which a Fatiha is offered, first, in the name of the Prophet; secondly, in the names of deceased relatives, and of others for whom a blessing is desired, or from whom some favor is expected. The food is then sent as a present to friends.

On the morning of the feast day, the devout Muslims proceed to the ’Id-gah or, if there is no ’Id-gah, to the principal Mosque, repeating on the way the Takbir “God is Great!” and “There is no other God save the one true God, God is great, praise be to God.” At the time of making wazu, the worshipper should say: “O God, make this (i.e. the sacrifice I shall offer to-day) an atonement for my sin, and purify my religion and take evil away from me.”

The Service at the ’Id-gah, or in the Mosque consists of two farz rak’ats, as in the Salat-ul-Juma , after the Khutba is delivered. It will, however, be seen from the following sermon that it is mustahab to say four more rak’ats.

SERMON ON THE ’ID-UZ-ZUHA.

In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.

Allahu Akbar! God is Great. There is no God but God. God is Great! God is Great and worthy of all praise. He is Holy. Day and night we should praise Him. He is without partner, without equal. All praise be to Him. Holy is He, Who makes the rich generous, Who provides the sacrifice for the wise. He is Great, without an equal. All praise be to Him. Listen! I testify that there is no God but God. He is alone, without partner. This testimony is as bright as the early dawn, as brilliant as the glorious feast day. Muhammad is His servant who delivered His message. On Muhammad, and on his family, and on his Companions may the peace of God rest. On you who are present, O congregation of Muslimin, may the mercy of God for ever rest. O servants of God! our first duty is to fear God and to be kind. God has said: “I will be with those who fear Me and are kind.”

Know O servants of God! that to rejoice on the feast day is the sign and mark of the pure and good. Exalted will be the rank of such in Paradise (Dar-ul-Qarar), especially on the day of resurrection will they obtain dignity and honour. Do not on this day foolish acts. It is no time for amusements and negligence. This is the day on which to utter the praises of God. (Tasbih.) Read the Kalima, the Takbir and the Tamhid. This is a high festival season and the feast of sacrifice. Read now the Takbir-ut-Tashriq. God is great! God is great! There is no God but God! God is great! God is great! All praise be to Him! From the morning of the ’Arfa, after every farz rak’at it is good (mustahab) for a person to repeat the Takbir-ut-Tashriq. The woman before whom is a man as Imam, and the traveller whose Imam is a permanent resident (Muqim) should also repeat this Takbir. It should be said at each Namaz until the Salat-ul-’Asr of the Feast day (10th). Some, however, say that it should be recited every day till the afternoon (’Asr) of the thirteenth day, as these are the days of the Tashriq . If the Imam forgets to recite, let not the worshipper forget. Know, O believers, that every free man who is a Sahib-i-Nisab (i.e. worth R should offer sacrifice on this day, provided that this sum is exclusive of his horse, his clothes, his tools, and his household goods and slaves. It is wajib for every one to offer sacrifice for himself, but it is not a wajib order that he should do it for his children. A goat, a ram or a cow should be offered in sacrifice for every seven persons. The victim must not be one-eyed, blind, lame or very thin.

If you sacrifice a fat animal it will serve you well, and carry you across the Sirat. O Believers, thus said the Prophet, on whom be the mercy and peace of God, “Sacrifice the victim with your own hands, this was the Sunnat of Ibrahim, on whom be peace.”

In the Kitab-uz-zad-ut-Taqwa, it is said that on the ’Id-ul-Fitr and the ’Id-uz-Zuha, four nafl rak’ats should be said after the farz Namaz of the ’Id. In the first rak’at after the Surat-ul-Fatiha recite the Surat-ul-A’la (Sura lxxvii); in the second, the Surat-ush-Shams (Sura xci); in the third, the Surat-uz-Zuha (Sura xciii); in the fourth, the Surat-ul-Ikhlas (cxii).

O Believers, if ye do so, God will pardon the sins of fifty years which are past and of fifty years to come. The reading of these Suras are equal as an act of merit to the reading of all the books God has sent by His prophets.

May God include us amongst those who are accepted by Him, who act according to the Law, whose desire will be granted at the last day. To all such there will be no fear in the day of resurrection; no sorrow in the examination at the day of judgment. The best of all books is the Quran. O believers! May God give to us, and to you a blessing for ever by the grace of the Noble Quran. May its verses be our guide, and may its wise mention of God direct us aright. I desire that God may pardon all believers, male and female, the Muslimin and the Muslimat. O believers, also seek for pardon. Truly God is the Forgiver, the Merciful, the Eternal King, the Compassionate, the Clement. O believers, the Khutba is over. Let all desire that on Muhammad Mustafa the mercy and peace of God may rest.

The worshippers then return to their respective homes and offer up the sacrifice, for it is a wajib order that every Muslim should keep this feast, and sacrifice an animal for himself. He need not fear though he has to incur debt for the purchase of an animal, for it is said that God will in some way help him to pay the debt. If a camel is sacrificed, it should be one not less than five years of age, if a cow or sheep it should at least be in its second year, though the third year is better; if a goat it must not be less than six months old. All of these animals must be without a blemish, or defect of any kind. It is a sunnat order that the head of the household should himself slay the victim. If, however, from any cause, he cannot do so, he may call in a butcher; but in that case he must place his hand upon that of the butcher when the operation is performed. If the victim is a camel, it must be placed with the head towards Mecca. Its front legs being bandaged together the sacrificer must stand on the right hand side of the victim, and plunge the knife into its throat with such force that the animal may fall at once. Any other mode of slaying it is unlawful. Other animals must be slain in the same way. Just before slaying the victim the following verse of the Quran should be repeated: “Say! my prayers, and my worship, and my life and my death are unto God, the Lord of the worlds. He hath no associate. This am I commanded, and I am the first of the Muslims.” (Sura v. The operator also adds: “O God, from Thee, and to Thee (I do this), in the name of God, God is Great!” Then having slain the victim he says: “O God accept this for me.” The first meal taken should be prepared from the flesh of the animal just slaughtered, after which the members of the family, the neighbours, and the poor should receive some portions.

It is considered highly meritorious to sacrifice one animal for each member of the family; but as that would involve an expenditure few could bear, it is allowable to sacrifice one victim for the household. In extreme cases men may combine together and make one sacrifice do for the whole, but the number of persons so combining must not exceed seventy. Some authorities limit the number to seven. This feast is strictly observed by all Muslims wherever they may be.

The Baqr-’Id and the ’Id-ul-Fitr constitute the ’Idain, the two great Feasts of Islam. A country in which Musalmans could not observe them both would at once become Dar-ul-Harb, or House of Enmity, in which it would be the bounden duty of every Muslim to join in a Jihad, against the Infidel rulers of the land.

This completes the principal Feasts of the Muslim year.

Among other practices borrowed from the Hindus must be placed the pilgrimage made by Indian Musalmans to the shrines of Saints, the ceremonies connected with them and the festivals instituted in their honour. Properly speaking, the Sunnis have but two festivals the Baqr-’Id and the ’Id-ul-Fitr, but many others are now observed. Of these I have described several. It only remains to notice a few of the festival days which are peculiar to India. The title of Pir given to a Musalman devotee is equivalent to the term Guru amongst the Hindus. A man who seeks to be a ‘religious’ takes a Pir as a spiritual guide. “Follow,” says the poet Wali, “the footsteps of thy Pir, like a shadow.” After death these Pirs are venerated as Walis or Saints. The Pirs when alive, are frequently resorted to for a ta’wiz, or charm, and the aid of their prayers is often invoked. The sepulchre of a Wali is called a Dargah, shrine; Mazar, place of pilgrimage; Rauza, garden. The professional reciter of the Quran, and the Namaz at such places is called a Rauza Khan. As a rule, processions are made to the shrines, and flowers, sweetmeats and food over which a Fatiha has been said are offered. Usually the Fatiha is for the Saint, not to the Saint. It is considered a very meritorious act to give land for the erection of such shrines and to endow them. An account of many of these Saints is given in the Bara Masa by Jawan and the Arayish-i-Mahfil by Afsos. The following selection will give an idea of the customs prevalent:

1. FESTIVAL OF MADAR. Sayyid Badr-ud-din Kutb-ul-Madar is said to have descended from the Imam Husain. He was born at Aleppo about A.D. 1050, and received from Muhammad permission to “hold his breath” (Habs-i-dam). Thus he was able to live to a good old age. He is said to have had 1,442 sons, and to have died when upwards of 300 years old. More rational people explain the number of his sons by saying they were his spiritual children. The length of his life is explained by saying that as each man has to make a certain number of inspirations, the less frequently he does it the longer he will live. Jawan in his account of the festival states: “The tomb of Madar is at Makanpur, a place about forty miles from Cawnpore.” On the seventeenth of the month Jamadi-ul-Awwal an immense crowd fills the village which is illuminated at night. Fires are lighted, around which Fakirs dance, and through which they leap calling out “Dam Madar, Dam Madar,” (breath of Madar.) An order of Fakirs, called Madaria, look to this Saint as their patron. In distant places where this feast is kept they set up an Alam, or standard in honour of the Saint, and perform ceremonies common to such days. The nights are spent in celebrating his praises, &c.

2. FESTIVAL OF MU’IN-UD-DIN CHISTI. The tomb of this Saint is in Ajmir. He was a Syed descended from Husain, the son of ’Ali, and was born in Sajistan about the year 537 A.H. His father died when he was about fifteen years old. Soon after this he fell in with a famous Fakir, Ibrahim Qanduzi, through whose influence he began to seek the Tariqat, or mystical road to the knowledge of God. When he was twenty years of age he received further instruction from the famous ’Abd-ul-Qadir Jilani. After the conquest of Hindustan by Shahab-ud-din Ghori, Mu’in-ud-din retired to Ajmir, where he died in the odour of sanctity 636 A.H. Pilgrimages to this tomb have been and are very popular. Emperors and people vied with each other in doing honour to the memory of this saint. Even Akbar, sceptic though he was as regards orthodox Islam, made a pilgrimage to this shrine, and offered vows that he might have a son who would live to manhood. Hindus also visit this tomb and presents from rich men of this class are not unusual.

3. FESTIVAL OF SALAR MAS’UD GHAZI. There is some doubt as to the nationality of this Saint. Some say he was a Husaini Syed, others that he was a Pathan, and a martyr. His tomb is situated in Oude. Afsos thus describes the pilgrimage. “Once a year great crowds of people gather from all parts. They carry red lances, and beat thousands of tambourines. The ’Urs is held on the first Sunday of the month Jith (May-June). The people believe that this was his wedding day, because it is said that he had on wedding garments when he was killed. This belief once led a certain oilman, a resident of Raduli, to send a bedstead, chair, and other marriage presents to the shrine at this time. The custom is still kept up by the descendants of the oilman. The common people fasten ropes to the branches of the trees in the neighbourhood, and swing, some by the hands and some by the heels, and assume various disguises. They thus hope to obtain what they desire.” The Hindus venerate this Saint very highly. The Musalmans look upon him as a most sacred person, for he slew many idolatrous Hindus, and so earned the title of Ghazi, the warrior: the Hindus consider that it was only by the power of God that he could do so many acts of prowess.

4. FESTIVAL OF THE BIRA OR OF KHAJA KHIZR. Of this Saint, M. Garcin de Tassy says: “Khaja Khizr is a personage respecting whom the opinions of orientals vary. Many consider him the same as Phineas, the grandson of Aaron; others that he is the prophet Elias; and lastly, the Turks confound him with St. George. In order to reconcile these conflicting opinions, some allege that the same soul has animated three different persons. Whatever be the fact, Khizr, according to the Musalmans, discovered the source of the Water of Life of which he is the guardian. He is believed to be very clever in divination, and to be the patron of waters. As such a festival is held in his honour.” Jawan describes it thus: “In the month of Bhadun (August-September) all whose wishes have been fulfilled, make it a point of duty to set afloat the boat (nau) in honour of Khaja Khizr, and to make according to their means offerings of milk and bruised grain to the holy personage. On every Friday, and in some places on every Thursday, in the month in question, the devotees having prepared the bira carry it at night to the bank of the river, with many ceremonies. There great and small, having lighted lamps and tapers, make their respective oblations, whilst a number of swimmers together jointly push the bira into the middle of the river.” Sometimes a number of small biras, made of clay, are also launched, and as each carries a lamp the general effect is striking. It is said that the Musalman natives of the Maldive Islands annually launch a small vessel laden with perfumes, gum, and odoriferous flowers, and leave it to the mercy of the winds and waves as an offering to the god of the sea. There can be no doubt that this god of the sea is Khizr, the patron of the waters.

The following prayer is recited in the Fatiha of Khizr: “To obtain purity of heart, and the benediction of Him who hears the vows of mortals, and who alone can keep from them all evils, I rest upon the merits of Khaja Khizr, the great prophet Elias.”

5. THE FEAST OF PIR DASTGIR SAHIB. This is held on the eleventh day of the month of Rabi’-us-Sani. The Sunnis hold this Saint in great reverence. He has no less than ninety-nine names. His tomb is at Baghdad. On the tenth of the month the ceremony called Sandal is performed, followed on the next day by the ’Urs, when the Maulad, or the account of the circumstances connected with the birth of the saint is read; Qasa,id, or elegiac poems are recited; the Darud is repeated and Fatihas are said. The Quran is also read through. Vows are frequently made to this Saint and in time of any special visitation, such as cholera, a flag is carried about in honour of this Pir by some of his devotees to whom presents of food, &c, are offered. Fatiha is then said over them. He is said to appear to his followers during their sleep and to give them directions. Ja’far Sharif, the compiler of the Qanun-i-Islam speaking, on this point relates his own experience thus: “The author speaks from personal experience, for at the time of need, when he was oppressed in mind concerning things which he desired, he used to repeat constantly the ninety-nine names of the Pir and vow before the Holy God, imploring His assistance by the soul of Dastgir; and through the mercy of the Almighty, his Excellency Ghaus-ul-A’zam (Dastgir) presented himself in his sleep, and relieved him of his perplexities and vouchsafed his behests.”

Syed Ahmad Kabir Rafai, the founder of the Rafai Darwishes was a nephew of this Saint.

6. FESTIVAL OF QADIR WALI SAHIB. This is the great saint of Southern India. The ’Urs is celebrated on the tenth day of Jamadi-us-Sani. The shrine is at Nagore, a town situated four miles north of Negapatam. The sandal and other ceremonies are similar to those described already. He is the patron saint of sailors, who in times of difficulty vow that, if they reach the shore in safety, they will offer a Fatiha in the name of Qadir Wali. The common people have a profound faith in the power of the saint to work miracles. The story of the following one is frequently related: “A vessel springing a leak was about to founder, when the Captain made a vow that should Qadir Wali stop the leak, he would offer in his name the value of the cargo. At that time the saint was being shaved, but being miraculously acquainted with the perilous position of the Captain he cast away the looking-glass which he held in his hand. This glass attached itself to the hole in the bottom of the ship which then came safely to land. The Captain, in due course, presented his offering to the saint who requested him to return the glass to the barber. The Captain was astonished at this request and enquired what glass was meant. He was then directed to look at the bottom of his ship. He did so, and discovered how the saint had saved the ship.”

The festival affords a curious illustration of the way in which Hindu influences have acted on Islam, and how even Hindus pay regard to Muslim Saints. Qadir Wali is said to have been a Fakir who lived on the charity of both Hindus and Musalmans. Indeed both parties claim him as belonging to their respective religions, which may be accounted for by the fact that in his preaching to mixed audiences he suited his addresses to both classes of his hearers. After his death a small Mosque was erected on or near his tomb. The fame of the Wali gradually grew, and a Hindu Rajah made a vow that if he were blessed with the birth of a son, he would enlarge and beautify the Mosque. His wish was fulfilled, and the present elegant structure is the result. So famous has the shrine of the Saint now become that the Musalmans there say: “First Mecca, then Nagore.” The same reason which induced the Hindu Rajah to make a votive offering years ago, still influences large numbers of people. On Thursday evenings, the commencement of the Muhammadan Sabbath, many Hindu women resort to the shrine of the Saint. On the closing night of the Annual Feast, Tabuts are taken in procession from Negapatam, and rich presents are sent from the Tanjore Palace to the Nagore Mosque. Thus is the Hindu connection still kept up with the festival of this Musalman Saint.

There are many other Walis and Pirs to whose tombs pilgrimages are made, and in memory of whom many superstitious observances are still kept up; but all such pilgrimages to a Dargah (shrine) are no necessary part of Islam. In all parts of the country there are the shrines of Saints who have a local reputation and whose annual festivals are more or less observed. Still it is not necessary for me to give a further account of these. This brings me to the close of my subject.

In the preceding chapters, I have endeavoured to set forth the main features of the Faith of Islam, and the religious duties it enjoins. I might now go on to show its relation to Judaism and Christianity, the elements it has drawn from them, and the distortions it has made in the borrowing, as well as the protest it raised against much that was corrupt in the Christianity with which it came in contact. I might also enlarge upon its moral and social effects, and the character it produces in the individual and the state. But these subjects would lead me far beyond my present scope. I prefer to content myself with giving a representation of the Faith of Islam from its own authorities, and with leaving my readers to make comparisons and draw inferences for themselves.