I

Florence, like all Italian cities, owed her independence to the duel of the Papacy and Empire.  The transference of the imperial authority beyond the Alps had enabled the burghs of Lombardy and Tuscany to establish a form of self-government.  This government was based upon the old municipal organisation of duumvirs and décemvirs.  It was, in fact, nothing more or less than a survival from the ancient Roman system.  The proof of this was, that while vindicating their rights as towns, the free cities never questioned the validity of the imperial title.  Even after the peace of Constance in 1183, when Frederick Barbarossa acknowledged their autonomy, they received within their walls a supreme magistrate, with power of life and death and ultimate appeal in all decisive questions, whose title of Potestà indicated that he represented the imperial power - Potestas.  It was not by the assertion of any right, so much as by the growth of custom, and by the weakness of the Emperors, that in course of time each city became a sovereign State.  The theoretical supremacy of the Empire prevented any other authority from taking the first place in Italy.  On the other hand, the practical inefficiency of the Emperors to play their part encouraged the establishment of numerous minor powers amenable to no controlling discipline.

The free cities derived their strength from industry, and had nothing in common with the nobles of the surrounding country.  Broadly speaking, the population of the towns included what remained in Italy of the old Roman people.  This Roman stock was nowhere stronger than in Florence and Venice - Florence defended from barbarian incursions by her mountains and marshes, Venice by the isolation of her lagoons.  The nobles, on the contrary, were mostly of foreign origin - Germans, Franks, and Lombards, who had established themselves as feudal lords in castles apart from the cities.  The force which the burghs acquired as industrial communities was soon turned against these nobles.  The larger cities, like Milan and Florence, began to make war upon the lords of castles, and to absorb into their own territory the small towns and villages around them.  Thus in the social economy of the Italians there were two antagonistic elements ready to range themselves beneath any banners that should give the form of legitimate warfare to their mutual hostility.  It was the policy of the Church in the twelfth century to support the cause of the cities, using them as a weapon against the Empire, and stimulating the growing ambition of the burghers.  In this way Italy came to be divided into the two world-famous factions known as Guelf and Ghibelline.  The struggle between Guelf and Ghibelline was the struggle of the Papacy for the depression of the Empire, the struggle of the great burghs face to face with feudalism, the struggle of the old Italie stock enclosed in cities with the foreign nobles established in fortresses.  When the Church had finally triumphed by the extirpation of the House of Hohenstaufen, this conflict of Guelf and Ghibelline was really ended.  Until the reign of Charles V. no Emperor interfered to any purpose in Italian affairs.  At the same time the Popes ceased to wield a formidable power.  Having won the battle by calling in the French, they suffered the consequences of this policy by losing their hold on Italy during the long period of their exile at Avignon.  The Italians, left without either Pope or Emperor, were free to pursue their course of internal development, and to prosecute their quarrels among themselves.  But though the names of Guelf and Ghibelline lost their old significance after the year 1266 (the date of King Manfred’s death), these two factions had so divided Italy that they continued to play a prominent part in her annals.  Guelf still meant constitutional autonomy, meant the burgher as against the noble, meant industry as opposed to feudal lordship.  Ghibelline meant the rule of the few over the many, meant tyranny, meant the interest of the noble as against the merchant and the citizen.  These broad distinctions must be borne in mind, if we seek to understand how it was that a city like Florence continued to be governed by parties, the European force of which had passed away.

II

Florence first rose into importance during the papacy of Innocent III.  Up to this date she had been a town of second-rate distinction even in Tuscany.  Pisa was more powerful by arms and commerce.  Lucca was the old seat of the dukes and marquises of Tuscany.  But between the years 1200 and 1250 Florence assumed the place she was to hold thenceforward, by heading the league of Tuscan cities formed to support the Guelf party against the Ghibellines.  Formally adopting the Guelf cause, the Florentines made themselves the champions of municipal liberty in Central Italy; and while they declared war against the Ghibelline cities, they endeavoured to stamp out the very name of noble in their State.  It is not needful to describe the varying fortunes of the Guelfs and Ghibellines, the burghers and the nobles, during the thirteenth and the first half of the fourteenth centuries.  Suffice it to say that through all the vicissitudes of that stormy period the name Guelf became more and more associated with republican freedom in Florence.  At last, after the final triumph of that party in 1253, the Guelfs remained victors in the city.  Associating the glory of their independence with Guelf principles, the citizens of Florence perpetuated within their State a faction that, in its turn, was destined to prove perilous to liberty.

When it became clear that the republic was to rule itself henceforth untrammelled by imperial interference, the people divided themselves into six districts, and chose for each district two Ancients, who administered the government in concert with the Potestà and the Captain of the People.  The Ancients were a relic of the old Roman municipal organisation.  The Potestà who was invariably a noble foreigner selected by the people, represented the extinct imperial right, and exercised the power of life and death within the city.  The Captain of the People, who was also a foreigner, headed the burghers in their military capacity, for at that period the troops were levied from the citizens themselves in twenty companies.  The body of the citizens, or the popolo, were ultimately sovereigns in the State.  Assembled under the banners of their several companies, they formed a parlamento for delegating their own power to each successive government.  Their representatives, again, arranged in two councils, called the Council of the People and the Council of the Commune, under the presidency of the Captain of the People and the Potestà, ratified the measures which had previously been proposed and carried by the executive authority or Signoria.  Under this simple State system the Florentines placed themselves at the head of the Tuscan League, fought the battles of the Church, asserted their sovereignty by issuing the golden florin of the republic, and flourished until 1266.

III

In that year an important change was effected in the Constitution.  The whole population of Florence consisted, on the one hand, of nobles or Grandi, as they were called in Tuscany, and on the other hand of working people.  The latter, divided into traders and handicraftsmen, were distributed in guilds called Arti; and at that time there were seven Greater and five Lesser Arti, the most influential of all being the Guild of the Wool Merchants.  These guilds had their halls for meeting, their colleges of chief officers, their heads, called Consoli or Priors, and their flags.  In 1266 it was decided that the administration of the commonwealth should be placed simply and wholly in the hands of the Arti, and the Priors of these industrial companies became the lords or Signory of Florence.  No inhabitant of the city who had not enrolled himself as a craftsman in one of the guilds could exercise any function of burghership.  To be scioperato, or without industry, was to be without power, without rank or place of honour in the State.  The revolution which placed the Arts at the head of the republic had the practical effect of excluding the Grandi altogether from the government.  Violent efforts were made by these noble families, potent through their territorial possessions and foreign connections, and trained from boyhood in the use of arms, to recover the place from which the new laws thrust them:  but their menacing attitude, instead of intimidating the burghers, roused their anger and drove them to the passing of still more stringent laws.  In 1293, after the Ghibellines had been defeated in the great battle of Campaldino, a series of severe enactments, called the Ordinances of Justice, were decreed against the unruly Grandi.  All civic rights were taken from them; the severest penalties were attached to their slightest infringement of municipal law; their titles to land were limited; the privilege of living within the city walls was allowed them only under galling restrictions; and, last not least, a supreme magistrate, named the Gonfalonier of Justice, was created for the special purpose of watching them and carrying out the penal code against them.  Henceforward Florence was governed exclusively by merchants and artisans.  The Grandi hastened to enrol themselves in the guilds, exchanging their former titles and dignities for the solid privilege of burghership.  The exact parallel to this industrial constitution for a commonwealth, carrying on wars with emperors and princes, holding haughty captains in its pay, and dictating laws to subject cities, cannot, I think, be elsewhere found in history.  It is as unique as the Florence of Dante and Giotto is unique.  While the people was guarding itself thus stringently against the Grandi, a separate body was created for the special purpose of extirpating the Ghibellines.  A permanent committee of vigilance, called the College or the Captains of the Guelf Party, was established.  It was their function to administer the forfeited possessions of Ghibelline rebels, to hunt out suspected citizens, to prosecute them for Ghibellinism, to judge them, and to punish them as traitors to the commonwealth.  This body, like a little State within the State, proved formidable to the republic itself through the unlimited and undefined sway it exercised over burghers whom it chose to tax with treason.  In course of time it became the oligarchical element within the Florentine democracy, and threatened to change the free constitution of the city into a government conducted by a few powerful families.

There is no need to dwell in detail on the internal difficulties of Florence during the first half of the fourteenth century.  Two main circumstances, however, require to be briefly noticed.  These are (i) the contest of the Blacks and Whites, so famous through the part played in it by Dante; and (ii) the tyranny of the Duke of Athens, Walter de Brienne.  The feuds of the Blacks and Whites broke up the city into factions, and produced such anarchy that at last it was found necessary to place the republic under the protection of foreign potentates.  Charles of Valois was first chosen, and after him the Duke of Athens, who took up his residence in the city.  Entrusted with dictatorial authority, he used his power to form a military despotism.  Though his reign of violence lasted rather less than a year, it bore important fruits; for the tyrant, seeking to support himself upon the favour of the common people, gave political power to the Lesser Arts at the expense of the Greater, and confused the old State-system by enlarging the democracy.  The net result of these events for Florence was, first, that the city became habituated to rancorous party-strife, involving exiles and proscriptions; and, secondly, that it lost its primitive social hierarchy of classes.

IV

After the Guelfs had conquered the Ghibellines, and the people had absorbed the Grandi in their guilds, the next chapter in the troubled history of Florence was the division of the Popolo against itself.  Civil strife now declared itself as a conflict between labour and capital.  The members of the Lesser Arts, craftsmen who plied trades subordinate to those of the Greater Arts, rose up against their social and political superiors, demanding a larger share in the government, a more equal distribution of profits, higher wages, and privileges that should place them on an absolute equality with the wealthy merchants.  It was in the year 1378 that the proletariate broke out into rebellion.  Previous events had prepared the way for this revolt.  First of all, the republic had been democratised through the destruction of the Grandi and through the popular policy pursued to gain his own ends by the Duke of Athens.  Secondly, society had been shaken to its very foundation by the great plague of 1348.  Both Boccaccio and Matteo Villani draw lively pictures of the relaxed morality and loss of order consequent upon this terrible disaster; nor had thirty years sufficed to restore their relative position to grades and ranks confounded by an overwhelming calamity.  We may therefore reckon the great plague of 1348 among the causes which produced the anarchy of 1378.  Rising in a mass to claim their privileges, the artisans ejected the Signory from the Public Palace, and for awhile Florence was at the mercy of the mob.  It is worthy of notice that the Medici, whose name is scarcely known before this epoch, now came for one moment to the front.  Salvestro de’ Medici was Gonfalonier of Justice at the time when the tumult first broke out.  He followed the faction of the handicraftsmen, and became the hero of the day.  I cannot discover that he did more than extend a sort of passive protection to their cause.  Yet there is no doubt that the attachment of the working classes to the House of Medici dates from this period.  The rebellion of 1378 is known in Florentine history as the Tumult of the Ciompi.  The name Ciompi strictly means the Wool-Carders.  One set of operatives in the city, and that the largest, gave its title to the whole body of the labourers.  For some months these craftsmen governed the republic, appointing their own Signory and passing laws in their own interest; but, as is usual, the proletariate found itself incapable of sustained government.  The ambition and discontent of the Ciompi foamed themselves away, and industrious working men began to see that trade was languishing and credit on the wane.  By their own act at last they restored the government to the Priors of the Greater Arti.  Still the movement had not been without grave consequences.  It completed the levelling of classes, which had been steadily advancing from the first in Florence.  After the Ciompi riot there was no longer not only any distinction between noble and burgher, but the distinction between greater and lesser guilds was practically swept away.  The classes, parties, and degrees in the republic were so broken up, ground down, and mingled, that thenceforth the true source of power in the State was wealth combined with personal ability.  In other words, the proper political conditions had been formed for unscrupulous adventurers.  Florence had become a democracy without social organisation, which might fall a prey to oligarchs or despots.  What remained of deeply rooted feuds or factions - animosities against the Grandi, hatred for the Ghibellines, jealousy of labour and capital - offered so many points of leverage for stirring the passions of the people and for covering personal ambition with a cloak of public zeal.  The time was come for the Albizzi to attempt an oligarchy, and for the Medici to begin the enslavement of the State.

V

The Constitution of Florence offered many points of weakness to the attacks of such intriguers.  In the first place it was in its origin not a political but an industrial organisation - a simple group of guilds invested with the sovereign authority.  Its two most powerful engines, the Gonfalonier of Justice and the Guelf College, had been formed, not with a view to the preservation of the government, but with the purpose of quelling the nobles and excluding a detested faction.  It had no permanent head, like the Doge of Venice; no fixed senate like the Venetian Grand Council; its chief magistrates, the Signory, were elected for short periods of two months, and their mode of election was open to the gravest criticism.  Supposed to be chosen by lot, they were really selected from lists drawn up by the factions in power from time to time.  These factions contrived to exclude the names of all but their adherents from the bags, or borse, in which the burghers eligible for election had to be inscribed.  Furthermore, it was not possible for this shifting Signory to conduct affairs requiring sustained effort and secret deliberation; therefore recourse was being continually had to dictatorial Commissions.  The people, summoned in parliament upon the Great Square, were asked to confer plenipotentiary authority upon a committee called Balia, who proceeded to do what they chose in the State, and who retained power after the emergency for which they were created passed away.  The same instability in the supreme magistracy led to the appointment of special commissioners for war, and special councils, or Pratiche, for the management of each department.  Such supplementary commissions not only proved the weakness of the central authority, but they were always liable to be made the instruments of party warfare.  The Guelf College was another and a different source of danger to the State.  Not acting under the control of the Signory, but using its own initiative, this powerful body could proscribe and punish burghers on the mere suspicion of Ghibellinism.  Though the Ghibelline faction had become an empty name, the Guelf College excluded from the franchise all and every whom they chose on any pretext to admonish.  Under this mild phrase, to admonish, was concealed a cruel exercise of tyranny - it meant to warn a man that he was suspected of treason, and that he had better relinquish the exercise of his burghership.  By free use of this engine of Admonition, the Guelf College rendered their enemies voiceless in the State, and were able to pack the Signory and the councils with their own creatures.  Another important defect in the Florentine Constitution was the method of imposing taxes.  This was done by no regular system.  The party in power made what estimate it chose of a man’s capacity to bear taxation, and called upon him for extraordinary loans.  In this way citizens were frequently driven into bankruptcy and exile; and since to be a debtor to the State deprived a burgher of his civic rights, severe taxation was one of the best ways of silencing and neutralising a dissentient.

I have enumerated these several causes of weakness in the Florentine State-system, partly because they show how irregularly the Constitution had been formed by the patching and extension of a simple industrial machine to suit the needs of a great commonwealth; partly because it was through these defects that the democracy merged gradually into a despotism.  The art of the Medici consisted in a scientific comprehension of these very imperfections, a methodic use of them for their own purposes, and a steady opposition to any attempts made to substitute a stricter system.  The Florentines had determined to be an industrial community, governing themselves on the co-operative principle, dividing profits, sharing losses, and exposing their magistrates to rigid scrutiny.  All this in theory was excellent.  Had they remained an unambitious and peaceful commonwealth, engaged in the wool and silk trade, it might have answered.  Modern Europe might have admired the model of a communistic and commercial democracy.  But when they engaged in aggressive wars, and sought to enslave sister-cities like Pisa and Lucca, it was soon found that their simple trading constitution would not serve.  They had to piece it out with subordinate machinery, cumbrous, difficult to manage, ill-adapted to the original structure.  Each limb of this subordinate machinery, moreover, was a point d’appui for insidious and self-seeking party leaders.

Florence, in the middle of the fourteenth century, was a vast beehive of industry.  Distinctions of rank among burghers, qualified to vote and hold office, were theoretically unknown.  Highly educated men, of more than princely wealth, spent their time in shops and counting-houses, and trained their sons to follow trades.  Military service at this period was abandoned by the citizens; they preferred to pay mercenary troops for the conduct of their wars.  Nor was there, as in Venice, any outlet for their energies upon the seas.  Florence had no navy, no great port - she only kept a small fleet for the protection of her commerce.  Thus the vigour of the commonwealth was concentrated on itself; while the influence of the citizens, through their affiliated trading-houses, correspondents, and agents, extended like a network over Europe.  In a community of this kind it was natural that wealth - rank and titles being absent - should alone confer distinction.  Accordingly we find that out of the very bosom of the people a new plutocratic aristocracy begins to rise.  The Grandi are no more; but certain families achieve distinction by their riches, their numbers, their high spirit, and their ancient place of honour in the State.  These nobles of the purse obtained the name of Popolani Nobili; and it was they who now began to play at high stakes for the supreme power.  In all the subsequent vicissitudes of Florence every change takes place by intrigue and by clever manipulation of the political machine.  Recourse is rarely had to violence of any kind, and the leaders of revolutions are men of the yard-measure, never of the sword.  The despotism to which the republic eventually succumbed was no less commercial than the democracy had been.  Florence in the days of her slavery remained a Popolo.

VI

The opening of the second half of the fourteenth century had been signalised by the feuds of two great houses, both risen from the people.  These were the Albizzi and the Ricci.  At this epoch there had been a formal closing of the lists of burghers; - henceforth no new families who might settle in the city could claim the franchise, vote in the assemblies, or hold magistracies.  The Guelf College used their old engine of admonition to persecute novi homines, whom they dreaded as opponents.  At the head of this formidable organisation the Albizzi placed themselves, and worked it with such skill that they succeeded in driving the Ricci out of all participation in the government.  The tumult of the Ciompi formed but an episode in their career toward oligarchy; indeed, that revolution only rendered the political material of the Florentine republic more plastic in the hands of intriguers, by removing the last vestiges of class distinctions and by confusing the old parties of the State.

When the Florentines in 1387 engaged in their long duel with Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the difficulty of conducting this war without some permanent central authority still further confirmed the power of the rising oligarchs.  The Albizzi became daily more autocratic, until in 1393 their chief, Maso degli Albizzi, a man of strong will and prudent policy, was chosen Gonfalonier of Justice.  Assuming the sway of a dictator he revised the list of burghers capable of holding office, struck out the private opponents of his house, and excluded all names but those of powerful families who were well affected towards an aristocratic government.  The great house of the Alberti were exiled in a body, declared rebels, and deprived of their possessions, for no reason except that they seemed dangerous to the Albizzi.  It was in vain that the people murmured against these arbitrary acts.  The new rulers were omnipotent in the Signory, which they packed with their own men, in the great guilds, and in the Guelf College.  All the machinery invented by the industrial community for its self-management and self-defence was controlled and manipulated by a close body of aristocrats, with the Albizzi at their head.  It seemed as though Florence, without any visible alteration in her forms of government, was rapidly becoming an oligarchy even less open than the Venetian republic.  Meanwhile the affairs of the State were most flourishing.  The strong-handed masters of the city not only held the Duke of Milan in check, and prevented him from turning Italy into a kingdom; they furthermore acquired the cities of Pisa, Livorno, Arezzo, Montepulciano, and Cortona, for Florence, making her the mistress of all Tuscany, with the exception of Siena, Lucca, and Volterra.  Maso degli Albizzi was the ruling spirit of the commonwealth, spending the enormous sum of 11,500,000 golden florins on war, raising sumptuous edifices, protecting the arts, and acting in general like a powerful and irresponsible prince.

In spite of public prosperity there were signs, however, that this rule of a few families could not last.  Their government was only maintained by continual revision of the lists of burghers, by elimination of the disaffected, and by unremitting personal industry.  They introduced no new machinery into the Constitution whereby the people might be deprived of its titular sovereignty, or their own dictatorship might be continued with a semblance of legality.  Again, they neglected to win over the new nobles (nobili popolani) in a body to their cause; and thus they were surrounded by rivals ready to spring upon them when a false step should be made.  The Albizzi oligarchy was a masterpiece of art, without any force to sustain it but the craft and energy of its constructors.  It had not grown up, like the Venetian oligarchy, by the gradual assimilation to itself of all the vigour in the State.  It was bound, sooner or later, to yield to the renascent impulse of democracy inherent in Florentine institutions.

VII

Maso degli Albizzi died in 1417.  He was succeeded in the government by his old friend, Niccolo da Uzzano, a man of great eloquence and wisdom, whose single word swayed the councils of the people as he listed.  Together with him acted Maso’s son, Rinaldo, a youth of even more brilliant talents than his father, frank, noble, and high-spirited, but far less cautious.

The oligarchy, which these two men undertook to manage, had accumulated against itself the discontent of overtaxed, disfranchised, jealous burghers.  The times, too, were bad.  Pursuing the policy of Maso, the Albizzi engaged the city in a tedious and unsuccessful war with Filippo Maria Visconti, which cost 350,000 golden florins, and brought no credit.  In order to meet extraordinary expenses they raised new public loans, thereby depreciating the value of the old Florentine funds.  “What was worse, they imposed forced subsidies with grievous inequality upon the burghers, passing over their friends and adherents, and burdening their opponents with more than could be borne.  This imprudent financial policy began the ruin of the Albizzi.  It caused a clamour in the city for a new system of more just taxation, which was too powerful to be resisted.  The voice of the people made itself loudly heard; and with the people on this occasion sided Giovanni de’ Medici.  This was in 1427.

It is here that the Medici appear upon that memorable scene where in the future they are to play the first part.  Giovanni de’ Medici did not belong to the same branch of his family as the Salvestro who favoured the people at the time of the Ciompi Tumult.  But he adopted the same popular policy.  To his sons Cosimo and Lorenzo he bequeathed on his deathbed the rule that they should invariably adhere to the cause of the multitude, found their influence on that, and avoid the arts of factious and ambitious leaders.  In his own life he had pursued this course of conduct, acquiring a reputation for civic moderation and impartiality that endeared him to the people and stood his children in good stead.  Early in his youth Giovanni found himself almost destitute by reason of the imposts charged upon him by the oligarchs.  He possessed, however, the genius for money-making to a rare degree, and passed his manhood as a banker, amassing the largest fortune of any private citizen in Italy.  In his old age he devoted himself to the organisation of his colossal trading business, and abstained, as far as possible, from political intrigues.  Men observed that they rarely met him in the Public Palace or on the Great Square.

Cosimo de’ Medici was thirty years old when his father Giovanni died, in 1429.  During his youth he had devoted all his time and energy to business, mastering the complicated affairs of Giovanni’s banking-house, and travelling far and wide through Europe to extend its connections.  This education made him a consummate financier; and those who knew him best were convinced that his ambition was set on great things.  However quietly he might begin, it was clear that he intended to match himself, as a leader of the plebeians, against the Albizzi.  The foundations he prepared for future action were equally characteristic of the man, of Florence, and of the age.  Commanding the enormous capital of the Medicean bank he contrived, at any sacrifice of temporary convenience, to lend money to the State for war expenses, engrossing in his own hands a large portion of the public debt of Florence.  At the same time his agencies in various European capitals enabled him to keep his own wealth floating far beyond the reach of foes within the city.  A few years of this system ended in so complete a confusion between Cosimo’s trade and the finances of Florence that the bankruptcy of the Medici, however caused, would have compromised the credit of the State and the fortunes of the fund-holders.  Cosimo, in a word, made himself necessary to Florence by the wise use of his riches.  Furthermore, he kept his eye upon the list of burghers, lending money to needy citizens, putting good things in the way of struggling traders, building up the fortunes of men who were disposed to favour his party in the State, ruining his opponents by the legitimate process of commercial competition, and, when occasion offered, introducing new voters into the Florentine Council by paying off the debts of those who were disqualified by poverty from using the franchise.  While his capital was continually increasing he lived frugally, and employed his wealth solely for the consolidation of his political influence.  By these arts Cosimo became formidable to the oligarchs and beloved by the people.  His supporters were numerous, and held together by the bonds of immediate necessity or personal cupidity.  The plebeians and the merchants were all on his side.  The Grandi and the Ammoniti, excluded from the State by the practices of the Albizzi, had more to hope from the Medicean party than from the few families who still contrived to hold the reins of government.  It was clear that a conflict to the death must soon commence between the oligarchy and this new faction.

VIII

At last, in 1433, war was declared.  The first blow was struck by Rinaldo degli Albizzi, who put himself in the wrong by attacking a citizen indispensable to the people at large, and guilty of no unconstitutional act.  On September 7th of that year, a year decisive for the future destinies of Florence, he summoned Cosimo to the Public Palace, which he had previously occupied with troops at his command.  There he declared him a rebel to the State, and had him imprisoned in a little square room in the central tower.  The tocsin was sounded; the people were assembled in parliament upon the piazza.  The Albizzi held the main streets with armed men, and forced the Florentines to place plenipotentiary power for the administration of the commonwealth at this crisis in the hands of a Balia, or committee selected by themselves.  It was always thus that acts of high tyranny were effected in Florence.  A show of legality was secured by gaining the compulsory sanction of the people, driven by soldiery into the public square, and hastily ordered to recognise the authority of their oppressors.

The bill of indictment against the Medici accused them of sedition in the year 1378 - that is, in the year of the Ciompi Tumult - and of treasonable practice during the whole course of the Albizzi administration.  It also strove to fix upon them the odium of the unsuccessful war against the town of Lucca.  As soon as the Albizzi had unmasked their batteries, Lorenzo de’ Medici managed to escape from the city, and took with him his brother Cosimo’s children to Venice.  Cosimo remained shut up within the little room called Barberia in Arnolfo’s tower.  From that high eagle’s nest the sight can range Valdarno far and wide.  Florence with her towers and domes lies below; and the blue peaks of Carrara close a prospect westward than which, with its villa-jewelled slopes and fertile gardens, there is nought more beautiful upon the face of earth.  The prisoner can have paid but little heed to this fair landscape.  He heard the frequent ringing of the great bell that called the Florentines to council, the tramp of armed men on the piazza, the coming and going of the burghers in the palace halls beneath.  On all sides lurked anxiety and fear of death.  Each mouthful he tasted might be poisoned.  For many days he partook of only bread and water, till his gaoler restored his confidence by sharing all his meals.  In this peril he abode twenty-four days.  The Albizzi, in concert with the Balia they had formed, were consulting what they might venture to do with him.  Some voted for his execution.  Others feared the popular favour, and thought that if they killed Cosimo this act would ruin their own power.  The nobler natures among them determined to proceed by constitutional measures.  At last, upon September 29th, it was settled that Cosimo should be exiled to Padua for ten years.  The Medici were declared Grandi, by way of excluding them from political rights.  But their property remained untouched; and on October 3rd, Cosimo was released.

On the same day Cosimo took his departure.  His journey northward resembled a triumphant progress.  He left Florence a simple burgher; he entered Venice a powerful prince.  Though the Albizzi seemed to have gained the day, they had really cut away the ground beneath their feet.  They committed the fatal mistake of doing both too much and too little - too much because they declared war against an innocent man, and roused the sympathies of the whole people in his behalf; too little, because they had not the nerve to complete their act by killing him outright and extirpating his party.  Machiavelli, in one of his profoundest and most cynical critiques, remarks that few men know how to be thoroughly bad with honour to themselves.  Their will is evil; but the grain of good in them - some fear of public opinion, some repugnance to committing a signal crime - paralyses their arm at the moment when it ought to have been raised to strike.  He instances Gian Paolo Baglioni’s omission to murder Julius II., when that Pope placed himself within his clutches at Perugia.  He might also have instanced Rinaldo degli Albizzi’s refusal to push things to extremities by murdering Cosimo.  It was the combination of despotic violence in the exile of Cosimo with constitutional moderation in the preservation of his life, that betrayed the weakness of the oligarchs and restored confidence to the Medicean party.

IX

In the course of the year 1434 this party began to hold up its head.  Powerful as the Albizzi were, they only retained the government by artifice; and now they had done a deed which put at nought their former arts and intrigues.  A Signory favourable to the Medici came into office, and on September 26th, 1434, Rinaldo in his turn was summoned to the palace and declared a rebel.  He strove to raise the forces of his party, and entered the piazza at the head of eight hundred men.  The menacing attitude of the people, however, made resistance perilous.  Rinaldo disbanded his troops, and placed himself under the protection of Pope Eugenius IV., who was then resident in Florence.  This act of submission proved that Rinaldo had not the courage or the cruelty to try the chance of civil war.  Whatever his motives may have been, he lost his hold upon the State beyond recovery.  On September 29th, a new parliament was summoned; on October 2nd, Cosimo was recalled from exile and the Albizzi were banished.  The intercession of the Pope procured for them nothing but the liberty to leave Florence unmolested.  Einaldo turned his back upon the city he had governed, never to set foot in it again.  On October 6th, Cosimo, having passed through Padua, Ferrara, and Modena like a conqueror, reentered the town amid the plaudits of the people, and took up his dwelling as an honoured guest in the Palace of the Republic.  The subsequent history of Florence is the history of his family.  In after years the Medici loved to remember this return of Cosimo.  His triumphal reception was painted in fresco on the walls of their villa at Cajano under the transparent allegory of Cicero’s entrance into Rome.

X

By their brief exile the Medici had gained the credit of injured innocence, the fame of martyrdom in the popular cause.  Their foes had struck the first blow, and in striking at them had seemed to aim against the liberties of the republic.  The mere failure of their adversaries to hold the power they had acquired, handed over this power to the Medici; and the reprisals which the Medici began to take had the show of justice, not of personal hatred, or petty vengeance.  Cosimo was a true Florentine.  He disliked violence, because he knew that blood spilt cries for blood.  His passions, too, were cool and temperate.  No gust of anger, no intoxication of success, destroyed his balance.  His one object, the consolidation of power for his family on the basis of popular favour, was kept steadily in view; and he would do nothing that might compromise that end.  Yet he was neither generous nor merciful.  We therefore find that from the first moment of his return to Florence he instituted a system of pitiless and unforgiving persecution against his old opponents.  The Albizzi were banished, root and branch, with all their followers, consigned to lonely and often to unwholesome stations through the length and breadth of Italy.  If they broke the bonds assigned them, they were forthwith declared traitors and their property was confiscated.  After a long series of years, by merely keeping in force the first sentence pronounced upon them, Cosimo had the cruel satisfaction of seeing the whole of that proud oligarchy die out by slow degrees in the insufferable tedium of solitude and exile.  Even the high-souled Palla degli Strozzi, who had striven to remain neutral, and whose wealth and talents were devoted to the revival of classical studies, was proscribed because to Cosimo he seemed too powerful.  Separated from his children, he died in banishment at Padua.  In this way the return of the Medici involved the loss to Florence of some noble citizens, who might perchance have checked the Medicean tyranny if they had stayed to guide the State.  The plebeians, raised to wealth and influence by Cosimo before his exile, now took the lead in the republic.  He used these men as catspaws, rarely putting himself forward or allowing his own name to appear, but pulling the wires of government in privacy by means of intermediate agents.  The Medicean party was called at first Puccini from a certain Puccio, whose name was better known in caucus or committee than that of his real master.

To rule through these creatures of his own making taxed all the ingenuity of Cosimo; but his profound and subtle intellect was suited to the task, and he found unlimited pleasure in the exercise of his consummate craft.  We have already seen to what extent he used his riches for the acquisition of political influence.  Now that he had come to power, he continued the same method, packing the Signory and the Councils with men whom he could hold by debt between his thumb and finger.  His command of the public moneys enabled him to wink at peculation in State offices; it was part of his system to bind magistrates and secretaries to his interest by their consciousness of guilt condoned but not forgotten.  Not a few, moreover, owed their living to the appointments he procured for them.  While he thus controlled the wheel-work of the commonwealth by means of organised corruption, he borrowed the arts of his old enemies to oppress dissentient citizens.  If a man took an independent line in voting, and refused allegiance to the Medicean party, he was marked out for persecution.  No violence was used; but he found himself hampered in his commerce - money, plentiful for others, became scarce for him; his competitors in trade were subsidised to undersell him.  And while the avenues of industry were closed, his fortune was taxed above its value, until he had to sell at a loss in order to discharge his public obligations.  In the first twenty years of the Medicean rule, seventy families had to pay 4,875,000 golden florins of extraordinary imposts, fixed by arbitrary assessment.

The more patriotic members of his party looked with dread and loathing on this system of corruption and exclusion.  To their remonstrances Cosimo replied in four memorable sayings:  ’Better the State spoiled than the State not ours.’  ’Governments cannot be carried on with paternósters.’  ‘An ell of scarlet makes a burgher.’  ’I aim at finite ends.’  These maxims represent the whole man, - first, in his egotism, eager to gain Florence for his family, at any risk of her ruin; secondly, in his cynical acceptance of base means to selfish ends; thirdly, in his bourgeois belief that money makes a man, and fine clothes suffice for a citizen; fourthly, in his worldly ambition bent on positive success.  It was, in fact, his policy to reduce Florence to the condition of a rotten borough:  nor did this policy fail.  One notable sign of the influence he exercised was the change which now came over the foreign relations of the republic.  Up to the date of his dictatorship Florence had uniformly fought the battle of freedom in Italy.  It was the chief merit of the Albizzi oligarchy that they continued the traditions of the mediaeval State, and by their vigorous action checked the growth of the Visconti.  Though they engrossed the government they never forgot that they were first of all things Florentines, and only in the second place men who owed their power and influence to office.  In a word, they acted like patriotic Tories, like republican patricians.  Therefore they would not ally themselves with tyrants or countenance the enslavement of free cities by armed despots.  Their subjugation of the Tuscan burghs to Florence was itself part of a grand republican policy.  Cosimo changed all this.  When the Visconti dynasty ended by the death of Filippo Maria in 1447, there was a chance of restoring the independence of Lombardy.  Milan in effect declared herself a republic, and by the aid of Florence she might at this moment have maintained her liberty.  Cosimo, however, entered into treaty with Francesco Sforza, supplied him with money, guaranteed him against Florentine interference, and saw with satisfaction how he reduced the duchy to his military tyranny.  The Medici were conscious that they, selfishly, had most to gain by supporting despots who in time of need might help them to confirm their own authority.  With the same end in view, when the legitimate line of the Bentivogli was extinguished, Cosimo hunted out a bastard pretender of that family, presented him to the chiefs of the Bentivogli faction, and had him placed upon the seat of his supposed ancestors at Bologna.  This young man, a certain Santi da Cascese, presumed to be the son of Ercole de’ Bentivogli, was an artisan in a wool factory when Cosimo set eyes upon him.  At first Santi refused the dangerous honour of governing a proud republic; but the intrigues of Cosimo prevailed, and the obscure craftsman ended his days a powerful prince.

By the arts I have attempted to describe, Cosimo in the course of his long life absorbed the forces of the republic into himself.  While he shunned the external signs of despotic power he made himself the master of the State.  His complexion was of a pale olive; his stature short; abstemious and simple in his habits, affable in conversation, sparing of speech, he knew how to combine that burgher-like civility for which the Romans praised Augustus, with the reality of a despotism all the more difficult to combat because it seemed nowhere and was everywhere.  When he died, at the age of seventy-five, in 1464, the people whom he had enslaved, but whom he had neither injured nor insulted, honoured him with the title of Pater Patriae.  This was inscribed upon his tomb in S. Lorenzo.  He left to posterity the fame of a great and generous patron, the infamy of a cynical, self-seeking, bourgeois tyrant.  Such combinations of contradictory qualities were common enough at the time of the Renaissance.  Did not Machiavelli spend his days in tavern-brawls and low amours, his nights among the mighty spirits of the dead, with whom, when he had changed his country suit of homespun for the habit of the Court, he found himself an honoured equal?

XI

Cosimo had shown consummate skill by governing Florence through a party created and raised to influence by himself.  The jealousy of these adherents formed the chief difficulty with which his son Piero had to contend.  Unless the Medici could manage to kick down the ladder whereby they had risen, they ran the risk of losing all.  As on a former occasion, so now they profited by the mistakes of their antagonists.  Three chief men of their own party, Diotisalvi Neroni, Agnolo Acciaiuoli, and Luca Pitti, determined to shake off the yoke of their masters, and to repay the Medici for what they owed by leading them to ruin.  Niccolo Soderini, a patriot, indignant at the slow enslavement of his country, joined them.  At first they strove to undermine the credit of the Medici with the Florentines by inducing Piero to call in the moneys placed at interest by his father in the hands of private citizens.  This act was unpopular; but it did not suffice to move a revolution.  To proceed by constitutional measures against the Medici was judged impolitic.  Therefore the conspirators decided to take, if possible, Piero’s life.  The plot failed, chiefly owing to the coolness and the cunning of the young Lorenzo, Piero’s eldest son.  Public sympathy was strongly excited against the aggressors.  Neroni, Acciaiuoli, and Soderini were exiled.  Pitti was allowed to stay, dishonoured, powerless, and penniless, in Florence.  Meanwhile, the failure of their foes had only served to strengthen the position of the Medici.  The ladder had saved them the trouble of kicking it down.

The congratulations addressed on this occasion to Piero and Lorenzo by the ruling powers of Italy show that the Medici were already regarded as princes outside Florence.  Lorenzo and Giuliano, the two sons of Piero, travelled abroad to the Courts of Milan and Ferrara with the style and state of more than simple citizens.  At home they occupied the first place on all occasions of public ceremony, receiving royal visitors on terms of equality, and performing the hospitalities of the republic like men who had been born to represent its dignities.  Lorenzo’s marriage to Clarice Orsini, of the noble Roman house, was another sign that the Medici were advancing on the way toward despotism.  Cosimo had avoided foreign alliances for his children.  His descendants now judged themselves firmly planted enough to risk the odium of a princely match for the sake of the support outside the city they might win.

XII

Piero de’ Medici died in December 1469.  His son Lorenzo was then barely twenty-two years of age.  The chiefs of the Medicean party, all-powerful in the State, held a council, in which they resolved to place him in the same position as his father and grandfather.  This resolve seems to have been formed after mature deliberation, on the ground that the existing conditions of Italian politics rendered it impossible to conduct the government without a presidential head.  Florence, though still a democracy, required a permanent chief to treat on an equality with the princes of the leading cities.  Here we may note the prudence of Cosimo’s foreign policy.  When he helped to establish despots in Milan and Bologna he was rendering the presidency of his own family in Florence necessary.

Lorenzo, having received this invitation, called attention to his youth and inexperience.  Yet he did not refuse it; and, after a graceful display of diffidence, he accepted the charge, entering thus upon that famous political career, in the course of which he not only established and maintained a balance of power in Italy, with Florence for the central city, but also contrived to remodel the government of the republic in the interest of his own family and to strengthen the Medici by relations with the Papal See.

The extraordinary versatility of this man’s intellectual and social gifts, his participation in all the literary and philosophical interests of his century, his large and liberal patronage of art, and the gaiety with which he joined the people of Florence in their pastimes - Mayday games and Carnival festivities - strengthened his hold upon the city in an age devoted to culture and refined pleasure.  Whatever was most brilliant in the spirit of the Italian Benaissance seemed to be incarnate in Lorenzo.  Not merely as a patron and a dilettante, but as a poet and a critic, a philosopher and scholar, he proved himself adequate to the varied intellectual ambitions of his country.  Penetrated with the passion for erudition which distinguished Florence in the fifteenth century, familiar with her painters and her sculptors, deeply read in the works of her great poets, he conceived the ideal of infusing the spirit of antique civility into modern life, and of effecting for society what the artists were performing in their own sphere.  To preserve the native character of the Florentine genius, while he added the grace of classic form, was the aim to which his tastes and instincts led him.  At the same time, while he made himself the master of Florentine revels and the Augustus of Renaissance literature, he took care that beneath his carnival masks and ball-dress should be concealed the chains which he was forging for the republic.

What he lacked, with so much mental brilliancy, was moral greatness.  The age he lived in was an age of selfish despots, treacherous generals, godless priests.  It was an age of intellectual vigour and artistic creativeness; but it was also an age of mean ambition, sordid policy, and vitiated principles.  Lorenzo remained true in all respects to the genius of this age:  true to its enthusiasm for antique culture, true to its passion for art, true to its refined love of pleasure; but true also to its petty political intrigues, to its cynical selfishness, to its lack of heroism.  For Florence he looked no higher and saw no further than Cosimo had done.  If culture was his pastime, the enslavement of the city by bribery and corruption was the hard work of his manhood.  As is the case with much Renaissance art, his life was worth more for its decorative detail than for its constructive design.  In richness, versatility, variety, and exquisiteness of execution, it left little to be desired; yet, viewed at a distance, and as a whole, it does not inspire us with a sense of architectonic majesty.

XIII

Lorenzo’s chief difficulties arose from the necessity under which, like Cosimo, he laboured of governing the city through its old institutions by means of a party.  To keep the members of this party in good temper, and to gain their approval for the alterations he effected in the State machinery of Florence, was the problem of his life.  The successful solution of this problem was easier now, after two generations of the Medicean ascendency, than it had been at first.  Meanwhile the people were maintained in good humour by public shows, ease, plenty, and a general laxity of discipline.  The splendour of Lorenzo’s foreign alliances and the consideration he received from all the Courts of Italy contributed in no small measure to his popularity and security at home.  By using his authority over Florence to inspire respect abroad, and by using his foreign credit to impose upon the burghers, Lorenzo displayed the tact of a true Italian diplomatist.  His genius for statecraft, as then understood, was indeed of a rare order, equally adapted to the conduct of a complicated foreign policy and to the control of a suspicious and variable Commonwealth.  In one point alone he was inferior to his grandfather.  He neglected commerce, and allowed his banking business to fall into disorder so hopeless that in course of time he ceased to be solvent.  Meanwhile his personal expenses, both as a prince in his own palace, and as the representative of majesty in Florence, continually increased.  The bankruptcy of the Medici, it had long been foreseen, would involve the public finances in serious confusion.  And now, in order to retrieve his fortunes, Lorenzo was not only obliged to repudiate his debts to the exchequer, but had also to gain complete disposal of the State purse.  It was this necessity that drove him to effect the constitutional revolution of 1480, by which he substituted a Privy Council of seventy members for the old Councils of the State, absorbing the chief functions of the commonwealth into this single body, whom he practically nominated at pleasure.  The same want of money led to the great scandal of his reign - the plundering of the Monte delle Doti, or State Insurance Office Fund for securing dowers to the children of its creditors.

XIV

While tracing the salient points of Lorenzo de’ Medici’s administration I have omitted to mention the important events which followed shortly after his accession to power in 1469.  What happened between that date and 1480 was not only decisive for the future fortunes of the Casa Medici, but it was also eminently characteristic of the perils and the difficulties which beset Italian despots.  The year 1471 was signalised by a visit by the Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza of Milan, and his wife Bona of Savoy, to the Medici in Florence.  They came attended by their whole Court - body guards on horse and foot, ushers, pages, falconers, grooms, kennel-varlets, and huntsmen.  Omitting the mere baggage service, their train counted two thousand horses.  To mention this incident would be superfluous, had not so acute an observer as Machiavelli marked it out as a turning-point in Florentine history.  Now, for the first time, the democratic commonwealth saw its streets filled with a mob of courtiers.  Masques, balls, and tournaments succeeded each other with magnificent variety; and all the arts of Florence were pressed into the service of these festivals.  Machiavelli says that the burghers lost the last remnant of their old austerity of manners, and became, like the degenerate Romans, ready to obey the masters who provided them with brilliant spectacles.  They gazed with admiration on the pomp of Italian princes, their dissolute and godless living, their luxury and prodigal expenditure; and when the Medici affected similar habits in the next generation, the people had no courage to resist the invasion of their pleasant vices.

In the same year, 1471, Volterra was reconquered for the Florentines by Frederick of Urbino.  The honours of this victory, disgraced by a brutal sack of the conquered city, in violation of its articles of capitulation, were reserved for Lorenzo, who returned in triumph to Florence.  More than ever he assumed the prince, and in his person undertook to represent the State.

In the same year, 1471, Francesco della Rovere was raised to the Papacy with the memorable name of Sixtus IV.  Sixtus was a man of violent temper and fierce passions, restless and impatiently ambitious, bent on the aggrandisement of the beautiful and wanton youths, his nephews.  Of these the most aspiring was Girolamo Riario, for whom Sixtus bought the town of Imola from Taddeo Manfredi, in order that he might possess the title of count and the nucleus of a tyranny in the Romagna.  This purchase thwarted the plans of Lorenzo, who wished to secure the same advantages for Florence.  Smarting with the sense of disappointment, he forbade the Roman banker, Francesco Pazzi, to guarantee the purchase-money.  By this act Lorenzo made two mortal foes - the Pope and Francesco Pazzi.  Francesco was a thin, pale, atrabilious fanatic, all nerve and passion, with a monomaniac intensity of purpose, and a will inflamed and guided by imagination - a man formed by nature for conspiracy, such a man, in fact, as Shakspere drew in Cassius.  Maddened by Lorenzo’s prohibition, he conceived the notion of overthrowing the Medici in Florence by a violent blow.  Girolamo Riario entered into his views.  So did Francesco Salviati, Archbishop of Pisa, who had private reasons for hostility.  These men found no difficulty in winning over Sixtus to their plot; nor is it possible to purge the Pope of participation in what followed.  I need not describe by what means Francesco drew the other members of his family into the scheme, and how he secured the assistance of armed cut-throats.  Suffice it to say that the chief conspirators, with the exception of the Count Girolamo, betook themselves to Florence, and there, after the failure of other attempts, decided to murder Lorenzo and his brother Giuliano in the cathedral on Sunday, April 26th, 1478.  The moment when the priest at the high altar finished the mass, was fixed for the assassination.  Everything was ready.  The conspirators, by Judas kisses and embracements, had discovered that the young men wore no protective armour under their silken doublets.  Pacing the aisle behind the choir, they feared no treason.  And now the lives of both might easily have been secured, if at the last moment the courage of the hired assassins had not failed them.  Murder, they said, was well enough; but they could not bring themselves to stab men before the newly consecrated body of Christ.  In this extremity a priest was found who, ‘being accustomed to churches,’ had no scruples.  He and another reprobate were told off to Lorenzo.  Francesco de’ Pazzi himself undertook Giuliano.  The moment for attack arrived.  Francesco plunged his dagger into the heart of Giuliano.  Then, not satisfied with this death-blow, he struck again, and in his heat of passion wounded his own thigh.  Lorenzo escaped with a flesh-wound from the poniard of the priest, and rushed into the sacristy, where his friend Poliziano shut and held the brazen door.  The plot had failed; for Giuliano, of the two brothers, was the one whom the conspirators would the more willingly have spared.  The whole church was in an uproar.  The city rose in tumult.  Rage and horror took possession of the people.  They flew to the Palazzo Pubblico and to the houses of the Pazzi, hunted the conspirators from place to place, hung the archbishop by the neck from the palace windows, and, as they found fresh victims for their fury, strung them one by one in a ghastly row at his side above the Square.  About one hundred in all were killed.  None who had joined in the plot escaped; for Lorenzo had long arms, and one man, who fled to Constantinople, was delivered over to his agents by the Sultan.  Out of the whole Pazzi family only Guglielmo, the husband of Bianca de’ Medici, was spared.  When the tumult was over, Andrea del Castagno painted the portraits of the traitors head-downwards upon the walls of the Bargello Palace, in order that all men might know what fate awaited the foes of the Medici and of the State of Florence. Meanwhile a bastard son of Giuliano’s was received into the Medicean household, to perpetuate his lineage.  This child, named Giulio, was destined to be famous in the annals of Italy and Florence under the title of Pope Clement VII.

XV

As is usual when such plots miss their mark, the passions excited redounded to the profit of the injured party.  The commonwealth felt that the blow struck at Lorenzo had been aimed at their majesty.  Sixtus, on the other hand, could not contain his rage at the failure of so ably planned a coup de main.  Ignoring that he had sanctioned the treason, that a priest had put his hand to the dagger, that the impious deed had been attempted in a church before the very Sacrament of Christ, whose vicar on earth he was, the Pope now excommunicated the republic.  The reason he alleged was, that the Florentines had dared to hang an archbishop.

Thus began a war to the death between Sixtus and Florence.  The Pope inflamed the whole of Italy, and carried on a ruinous campaign in Tuscany.  It seemed as though the republic might lose her subject cities, always ready to revolt when danger threatened the sovereign State.  Lorenzo’s position became critical.  Sixtus made no secret of the hatred he bore him personally, declaring that he fought less with Florence than with the Medici.  To support the odium of this long war and this heavy interdict alone, was more than he could do.  His allies forsook him.  Naples was enlisted on the Pope’s side.  Milan and the other States of Lombardy were occupied with their own affairs, and held aloof.  In this extremity he saw that nothing but a bold step could save him.  The league formed by Sixtus must be broken up at any risk, and, if possible, by his own ability.  On December 6th, 1479, Lorenzo left Florence, unarmed and unattended, took ship at Leghorn, and proceeded to the court of the enemy, King Ferdinand, at Naples.  Ferdinand was a cruel and treacherous sovereign, who had murdered his guest, Jacopo Piccinino, at a banquet given in his honour.  But Ferdinand was the son of Alfonso, who, by address and eloquence, had gained a kingdom from his foe and jailor, Filippo Maria Visconti.  Lorenzo calculated that he too, following Alfonso’s policy, might prove to Ferdinand how little there was to gain from an alliance with Rome, how much Naples and Florence, firmly united together for offence and defence, might effect in Italy.

Only a student of those perilous times can appreciate the courage and the genius, the audacity combined with diplomatic penetration, displayed by Lorenzo at this crisis.  He calmly walked into the lion’s den, trusting he could tame the lion and teach it, and all in a few days.  Nor did his expectation fail.  Though Lorenzo was rather ugly than handsome, with a dark skin, heavy brows, powerful jaws, and nose sharp in the bridge and broad at the nostrils, without grace of carriage or melody of voice, he possessed what makes up for personal defects - the winning charm of eloquence in conversation, a subtle wit, profound knowledge of men, and tact allied to sympathy, which placed him always at the centre of the situation.  Ferdinand received him kindly.  The Neapolitan nobles admired his courage and were fascinated by his social talents.  On March 1st, 1480, he left Naples again, having won over the King by his arguments.  When he reached Florence he was able to declare that he brought home a treaty of peace and alliance signed by the most powerful foe of the republic.  The success of this bold enterprise endeared Lorenzo more than ever to his countrymen.  In the same year they concluded a treaty with Sixtus, who was forced against his will to lay down arms by the capture of Otranto and the extreme peril of Turkish invasion.  After the year 1480 Lorenzo remained sole master in Florence, the arbiter and peacemaker of the rest of Italy.

XVI

The conjuration of the Pazzi was only one in a long series of similar conspiracies.  Italian despots gained their power by violence and wielded it with craft.  Violence and craft were therefore used against them.  When the study of the classics had penetrated the nation with antique ideas of heroism, tyrannicide became a virtue.  Princes were murdered with frightful frequency.  Thus Gian Maria Visconti was put to death at Milan in 1412; Galeazzo Maria Sforza in 1484; the Chiarelli of Fabriano were massacred in 1435; the Baglioni of Perugia in 1500; Girolamo Gentile planned the assassination of Galeazzo Sforza at Genoa in 1476; Niccolo d’Este conspired against his uncle Ercole in 1476; Stefano Porcari attempted the life of Nicholas V. at Rome in 1453; Lodovico Sforza narrowly escaped a violent death in 1453.  I might multiply these instances beyond satiety.  As it is, I have selected but a few examples falling, all but one, within the second half of the fifteenth century.  Nearly all these attempts upon the lives of princes were made in church during the celebration of sacred offices.  There was no superfluity of naughtiness, no wilful sacrilege, in this choice of an occasion.  It only testified to the continual suspicion and guarded watchfulness maintained by tyrants.  To strike at them except in church was almost impossible.  Meanwhile the fate of the tyrannicides was uniform.  Successful or not, they perished.  Yet so grievous was the pressure of Italian despotism, so glorious was the ideal of Greek and Roman heroism, so passionate the temper of the people, that to kill a prince at any cost to self appeared the crown of manliness.  This bloodshed exercised a delirious fascination:  pure and base, personal and patriotic motives combined to add intensity of fixed and fiery purpose to the murderous impulse.  Those then who, like the Medici, aspired to tyranny and sought to found a dynasty of princes, entered the arena against a host of unknown and unseen gladiators.

XVII

On his deathbed, in 1492, Lorenzo lay between two men - Angelo Poliziano and Girolamo Savonarola.  Poliziano incarnated the genial, radiant, godless spirit of fifteenth-century humanism.  Savonarola represented the conscience of Italy, self-convicted, amid all her greatness, of crimes that called for punishment.  It is said that when Lorenzo asked the monk for absolution, Savonarola bade him first restore freedom to Florence.  Lorenzo, turned his face to the wall and was silent.  How indeed could he make this city in a moment free, after sixty years of slow and systematic corruption?  Savonarola left him, and he died unshriven.  This legend is doubtful, though it rests on excellent if somewhat partial authority.  It has, at any rate, the value of a mythus, since it epitomises the attitude assumed by the great preacher to the prince.  Florence enslaved, the soul of Lorenzo cannot lay its burden down, but must go with all its sins upon it to the throne of God.

The year 1492 was a memorable year for Italy.  In this year Lorenzo’s death removed the keystone of the arch that had sustained the fabric of Italian federation.  In this year Roderigo Borgia was elected Pope.  In this year Columbus discovered America; Vasco de Gama soon after opened a new way to the Indies, and thus the commerce of the world passed from Italy to other nations.  In this year the conquest of Granada gave unity to the Spanish nation.  In this year France, through the lifelong craft of Louis XI., was for the first time united under a young hot-headed sovereign.  On every side of the political horizon storms threatened.  It was clear that a new chapter of European history had been opened.  Then Savonarola raised his voice, and cried that the crimes of Italy, the abominations of the Church, would speedily be punished.  Events led rapidly to the fulfilment of this prophecy.  Lorenzo’s successor, Piero de’ Medici, was a vain, irresolute, and hasty princeling, fond of display, proud of his skill in fencing and football-playing, with too much of the Orsini blood in his hot veins, with too little of the Medicean craft in his weak head.  The Italian despots felt they could not trust Piero, and this want of confidence was probably the first motive that impelled Lodovico Sforza to call Charles VIII. into Italy in 1494.

It will not be necessary to dwell upon this invasion of the French, except in so far as it affected Florence.  Charles passed rapidly through Lombardy, engaged his army in the passes of the Apennines, and debouched upon the coast where the Magra divided Tuscany from Liguria.  Here the fortresses of Sarzana and Pietra Santa, between the marble bulwark of Carrara and the Tuscan sea, stopped his further progress.  The keys were held by the Florentines.  To force these strong positions and to pass beyond them seemed impossible.  It might have been impossible if Piero de’ Medici had possessed a firmer will.  As it was, he rode off to the French camp, delivered up the forts to Charles, bound the King by no engagements, and returned not otherwise than proud of his folly to Florence.  A terrible reception awaited him.  The Florentines, in their fury, had risen and sacked the Medicean palace.  It was as much as Piero, with his brothers, could do to escape beyond the hills to Venice.  The despotism of the Medici, so carefully built up, so artfully sustained and strengthened, was overthrown in a single day.

XVIII

Before considering what happened in Florence after the expulsion of the Medici, it will be well to pause a moment and review the state in which Lorenzo had left his family.  Piero, his eldest son, recognised as chief of the republic after his father’s death, was married to Alfonsina Orsini, and was in his twenty-second year.  Giovanni, his second son, a youth of seventeen, had just been made cardinal.  This honour, of vast importance for the Casa Medici in the future, he owed to his sister Maddalena’s marriage to Franceschetto Cybo, son of Innocent VIII.  The third of Lorenzo’s sons, named Giuliano, was a boy of thirteen.  Giulio, the bastard son of the elder Giuliano, was fourteen.  These four princes formed the efficient strength of the Medici, the hope of the house; and for each of them, with the exception of Piero, who died in exile, and of whom no more notice need be taken, a brilliant destiny was still in store.  In the year 1495, however, they now wandered, homeless and helpless, through the cities of Italy, each of which was shaken to its foundations by the French invasion.

XIX

Florence, left without the Medici, deprived of Pisa and other subject cities by the passage of the French army, with no leader but the monk Savonarola, now sought to reconstitute her liberties.  During the domination of the Albizzi and the Medici the old order of the commonwealth had been completely broken up.  The Arti had lost their primitive importance.  The distinctions between the Grandi and the Popolani had practically passed away.  In a democracy that has submitted to a lengthened course of tyranny, such extinction of its old life is inevitable.  Yet the passion for liberty was still powerful; and the busy brains of the Florentines were stored with experience gained from their previous vicissitudes, from \ the study of antique history, and from the observation of existing constitutions in the towns of Italy.  They now determined to reorganise the State upon the model of the Venetian republic.  The Signory was to remain, with its old institution of Priors, Gonfalonier, and College, elected for brief periods.  These magistrates were to take the initiative in debate, to propose measures, and to consider plans of action.  The real power of the State, for voting supplies and ratifying the measures of the Signory, was vested in a senate of one thousand members, called the Grand Council, from whom a smaller body of forty, acting as intermediates between the Council and the Signory, were elected.  It is said that the plan of this constitution originated with Savonarola; nor is there any doubt that he used all his influence in the pulpit of the Duomo to render it acceptable to the people.  Whoever may have been responsible for its formation, the new government was carried in 1495, and a large hall for the assembly of the Grand Council was opened in the Public Palace.

Savonarola, meanwhile, had become the ruling spirit of Florence.  He gained his great power as a preacher:  he used it like a monk.  The motive principle of his action was the passion for reform.  To bring the Church back to its pristine state of purity, without altering its doctrine or suggesting any new form of creed; to purge Italy of ungodly customs; to overthrow the tyrants who encouraged evil living, and to place the power of the State in the hands of sober citizens:  these were his objects.  Though he set himself in bold opposition to the reigning Pope, he had no desire to destroy the spiritual supremacy of S. Peter’s see.  Though he burned with an enthusiastic zeal for liberty, and displayed rare genius for administration, he had no ambition to rule Florence like a dictator.  Savonarola was neither a reformer in the northern sense of the word, nor yet a political demagogue.  His sole wish was to see purity of manners and freedom of self-government re-established.  With this end in view he bade the Florentines elect Christ as their supreme chief; and they did so.  For the same end he abstained from appearing in the State Councils, and left the Constitution to work by its own laws.  His personal influence he reserved for the pulpit; and here he was omnipotent.  The people believed in him as a prophet.  They turned to him as the man who knew what he wanted - as the voice of liberty, the soul of the new regime, the genius who could breathe into the commonwealth a breath of fresh vitality.  When, therefore, Savonarola preached a reform of manners, he was at once obeyed.  Strict laws were passed enforcing sobriety, condemning trades of pleasure, reducing the gay customs of Florence to puritanical austerity.

Great stress has been laid upon this reaction of the monk-led populace against the vices of the past.  Yet the historian is bound to pronounce that the reform effected by Savonarola was rather picturesque than vital.  Like all violent revivals of pietism, it produced a no less violent reaction.  The parties within the city who resented the interference of a preaching friar, joined with the Pope in Rome, who hated a contumacious schismatic in Savonarola.  Assailed by these two forces at the same moment, and driven upon perilous ground by his own febrile enthusiasm, Savonarola succumbed.  He was imprisoned, tortured, and burned upon the public square in 1498.

What Savonarola really achieved for Florence was not a permanent reform of morality, but a resuscitation of the spirit of freedom.  His followers, called in contempt I Piagnoni, or the Weepers, formed the path of the commonwealth in future; and the memory of their martyr served as a common bond of sympathy to unite them in times of trial.  It was a necessary consequence of the peculiar part he played that the city was henceforth divided into factions representing mutually antagonistic principles.  These factions were not created by Savonarola; but his extraordinary influence accentuated, as it were, the humours that lay dormant in the State.  Families favourable to the Medici took the name of Palleschi.  Men who chafed against puritanical reform, and who were eager for any government that should secure them their old licence, were known as Compagnacci.  Meanwhile the oligarchs, who disliked a democratic Constitution, and thought it possible to found an aristocracy without the intervention of the Medici, came to be known as Gli Ottimati.  Florence held within itself, from this epoch forward to the final extinction of liberty, four great parties:  the Piagnoni, passionate for political freedom and austerity of life; the Palleschi, favourable to the Medicean cause, and regretful of Lorenzo’s pleasant rule; the Compagnacci, intolerant of the reformed republic, neither hostile nor loyal to the Medici, but desirous of personal licence; the Ottimati, astute and selfish, watching their own advantage, ever-mindful to form a narrow government of privileged families, disinclined to the Medici, except when they thought the Medici might be employed as instruments in their intrigues.

XX

During the short period of Savonarola’s ascendency, Florence was in form at least a Theocracy, without any titular head but Christ; and as long as the enthusiasm inspired by the monk lasted, as long as his personal influence endured, the Constitution of the Grand Council worked well.  After his death it was found that the machinery was too cumbrous.  While adopting the Venetian form of government, the Florentines had omitted one essential element - the Doge.  By referring measures of immediate necessity to the Grand Council, the republic lost precious time.  Dangerous publicity, moreover, was incurred; and so large a body often came to no firm resolution.  There was no permanent authority in the State; no security that what had been deliberated would be carried out with energy; no titular chief, who could transact affairs with foreign potentates and their ambassadors.  Accordingly, in 1502, it was decreed that the Gonfalonier should hold office for life - should be in fact a Doge.  To this important post of permanent president Piero Soderini was appointed; and in his hands were placed the chief affairs of the republic.

At this point Florence, after all her vicissitudes, had won her way to something really similar to the Venetian Constitution.  Yet the similarity existed more in form than in fact.  The government of burghers in a Grand Council, with a Senate of forty, and a Gonfalonier for life, had not grown up gradually and absorbed into itself the vital forces of the commonwealth.  It was a creation of inventive intelligence, not of national development, in Florence.  It had against it the jealousy of the Ottimati, who felt themselves overshadowed by the Gonfalonier; the hatred of the Palleschi, who yearned for the Medici; the discontent of the working classes, who thought the presence of a Court in Florence would improve trade; last, but not least, the disaffection of the Compagnacci, who felt they could not flourish to their heart’s content in a free commonwealth.  Moreover, though the name of liberty was on every lip, though the Florentines talked, wrote, and speculated more about constitutional independence than they had ever done, the true energy of free institutions had passed from the city.  The corrupt government of Cosimo and Lorenzo bore its natural fruit now.  Egotistic ambition and avarice supplanted patriotism and industry.  It is necessary to comprehend these circumstances, in order that the next revolution may be clearly understood.

XXI

During the ten years which elapsed between 1502 and 1512, Piero Soderini administered Florence with an outward show of great prosperity.  He regained Pisa, and maintained an honourable foreign policy in the midst of the wars stirred up by the League of Cambray.  Meanwhile the young princes of the House of Medici had grown to manhood in exile.  The Cardinal Giovanni was thirty-seven in 1512.  His brother Giuliano was thirty-three.  Both of these men were better fitted than their brother Piero to fight the battles of the family.  Giovanni, in particular, had inherited no small portion of the Medicean craft.  During the troubled reign of Julius II. he kept very quiet, cementing his connections with powerful men in Rome, but making no effort to regain his hold on Florence.  Now the moment for striking a decisive blow had come.  After the battle of Ravenna in 1512, the French were driven out of Italy, and the Sforzas returned to Milan; the Spanish troops, under the Viceroy Cardona, remained masters of the country.  Following the camp of these Spaniards, Giovanni de’ Medici entered Tuscany in August, and caused the restoration of the Medici to be announced in Florence.  The people, assembled by Soderini, resolved to resist to the uttermost.  No foreign army should force them to receive the masters whom they had expelled.  Yet their courage failed on August 29th, when news reached them of the capture and the sack of Prato.  Prato is a sunny little city a few miles distant from the walls of Florence, famous for the beauty of its women, the richness of its gardens, and the grace of its buildings.  Into this gem of cities the savage soldiery of Spain marched in the bright autumnal weather, and turned the paradise into a hell.  It is even now impossible to read of what they did in Prato without shuddering. Cruelty and lust, sordid greed for gold, and cold delight in bloodshed, could go no further.  Giovanni de’ Medici, by nature mild and voluptuous, averse to violence of all kinds, had to smile approval, while the Spanish Viceroy knocked thus with mailed hand for him at the door of Florence.  The Florentines were paralysed with terror.  They deposed Soderini and received the Medici.  Giovanni and Giuliano entered their devastated palace in the Via Larga, abolished the Grand Council, and dealt with the republic as they listed.

XXII

There was no longer any medium in Florence possible between either tyranny or some such government as the Medici had now destroyed.  The State was too rotten to recover even the modified despotism of Lorenzo’s days.  Each transformation had impaired some portion of its framework, broken down some of its traditions, and sowed new seeds of egotism in citizens who saw all things round them change but self-advantage.  Therefore Giovanni and Giuliano felt themselves secure in flattering the popular vanity by an empty parade of the old institutions.  They restored the Signory and the Gonfalonier, elected for intervals of two months by officers appointed for this purpose by the Medici.  Florence had the show of a free government.  But the Medici managed all things; and soldiers, commanded by their creature, Paolo Vettori, held the Palace and the Public Square.  The tyranny thus established was less secure, inasmuch as it openly rested upon violence, than Lorenzo’s power had been; nor were there signs wanting that the burghers could ill brook their servitude.  The conspiracy of Pietro Paolo Boscoli and Agostino Capponi proved that the Medicean brothers ran daily risk of life.  Indeed, it is not likely that they would have succeeded in maintaining their authority - for they were poor and ill-supported by friends outside the city - except for one most lucky circumstance:  that was the election of Giovanni de’ Medici to the Papacy in 1513.

The creation of Leo X. spread satisfaction throughout Italy.  Politicians trusted that he would display some portion of his father’s ability, and restore peace to the nation.  Men of arts and letters expected everything from a Medicean Pope, who had already acquired the reputation of polite culture and open-handed generosity.  They at any rate were not deceived.  Leo’s first words on taking his place in the Vatican were addressed to his brother Giuliano:  ’Let us enjoy the Papacy, now that God has given it to us;’ and his notion of enjoyment was to surround himself with court-poets, jesters, and musicians, to adorn his Roman palaces with frescoes, to collect statues and inscriptions, to listen to Latin speeches, and to pass judgment upon scholarly compositions.  Any one and every one who gave him sensual or intellectual pleasure, found his purse always open.  He lived in the utmost magnificence, and made Rome the Paris of the Renaissance for brilliance, immorality, and self-indulgent ease.  The politicians had less reason to be satisfied.  Instead of uniting the Italians and keeping the great Powers of Europe in check, Leo carried on a series of disastrous petty wars, chiefly with the purpose of establishing the Medici as princes.  He squandered the revenues of the Church, and left enormous debts behind him - an exchequer ruined and a foreign policy so confused that peace for Italy could only be obtained by servitude.

Florence shared in the general rejoicing which greeted Leo’s accession to the Papacy.  He was the first Florentine citizen who had received the tiara, and the popular vanity was flattered by this honour to the republic.  Political theorists, meanwhile, began to speculate what greatness Florence, in combination with Rome, might rise to.  The Pope was young; he ruled a large territory, reduced to order by his warlike predecessors.  It seemed as though the republic, swayed by him, might make herself the first city in Italy, and restore the glories of her Guelf ascendency upon the platform of Renaissance statecraft.  There was now no overt opposition to the Medici in Florence.  How to govern the city from Rome, and how to advance the fortunes of his brother Giuliano and his nephew Lorenzo (Piero’s son, a young man of twenty-one), occupied the Pope’s most serious attention.  For Lorenzo Leo obtained the Duchy of Urbino and the hand of a French princess.  Giuliano was named Gonfalonier of the Church.  He also received the French title of Duke of Nemours and the hand of Filiberta, Princess of Savoy.  Leo entertained a further project of acquiring the crown of Southern Italy for his brother, and thus of uniting Rome, Florence, and Naples under the headship of his house.  Nor were the Medicean interests neglected in the Church.  Giulio, the Pope’s bastard cousin, was made cardinal.  He remained in Rome, acting as vice-chancellor and doing the hard work of the Papal Government for the pleasure-loving pontiff.

To Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino, the titular head of the family, was committed the government of Florence.  During their exile, wandering from court to court in Italy, the Medici had forgotten what it was to be burghers, and had acquired the manners of princes.  Leo alone retained enough of caution to warn his nephew that the Florentines must still be treated as free people.  He confirmed the constitution of the Signory and the Privy Council of seventy established by his father, bidding Lorenzo, while he ruled this sham republic, to avoid the outer signs of tyranny.  The young duke at first behaved with moderation, but he could not cast aside his habits of a great lord.  Florence now for the first time saw a regular court established in her midst, with a prince, who, though he bore a foreign title, was in fact her master.  The joyous days of Lorenzo the Magnificent returned.  Masquerades and triumphs filled the public squares.  Two clubs of pleasure, called the Diamond and the Branch - badges adopted by the Medici to signify their firmness in disaster and their power of self-recovery - were formed to lead the revels.  The best sculptors and painters devoted their genius to the invention of costumes and cars.  The city affected to believe that the age of gold had come again.

XXIII

Fortune had been very favourable to the Medici.  They had returned as princes to Florence.  Giovanni was Pope.  Giuliano was Gonfalonier of the Church.  Giulio was Cardinal and Archbishop of Florence.  Lorenzo ruled the city like a sovereign.  But this prosperity was no less brief than it was brilliant.  A few years sufficed to sweep off all the chiefs of the great house.  Giuliano died in 1516, leaving only a bastard son Ippolito.  Lorenzo died in 1519, leaving a bastard son Alessandro, and a daughter, six days old, who lived to be the Queen of France.  Leo died in 1521.  There remained now no legitimate male descendants from the stock of Cosimo.  The honours and pretensions of the Medici devolved upon three bastards - on the Cardinal Giulio, and the two boys, Alessandro and Ippolito.  Of these, Alessandro was a mulatto, his mother having been a Moorish slave in the Palace of Urbino; and whether his father was Giulio, or Giuliano, or a base groom, was not known for certain.  To such extremities were the Medici reduced.  In order to keep their house alive, they were obliged to adopt this foundling.  It is true that the younger branch of the family, descended from Lorenzo, the brother of Cosimo, still flourished.  At this epoch it was represented by Giovanni, the great general known as the Invincible, whose bust so strikingly resembles that of Napoleon.  But between this line of the Medici and the elder branch there had never been true cordiality.  The Cardinal mistrusted Giovanni.  It may, moreover, be added, that Giovanni was himself doomed to death in the year 1526.

Giulio de’ Medici was left in 1521 to administer the State of Florence single-handed.  He was archbishop, and he resided in the city, holding it with the grasp of an absolute ruler.  Yet he felt his position insecure.  The republic had no longer any forms of self-government; nor was there a magistracy to whom the despot could delegate his power in his absence.  Giulio’s ambition was fixed upon the Papal crown.  The bastards he was rearing were but children.  Florence had therefore to be furnished with some political machinery that should work of itself.  The Cardinal did not wish to give freedom to the city, but clockwork.  He was in the perilous situation of having to rule a commonwealth without life, without elasticity, without capacity of self-movement, yet full of such material as, left alone, might ferment, and breed a revolution.  In this perplexity, he had recourse to advisers.  The most experienced politicians, philosophical theorists, practical diplomatists, and students of antique history were requested to furnish him with plans for a new constitution, just as you ask an architect to give you the plan of a new house.  This was the field-day of the doctrinaires.  Now was seen how much political sagacity the Florentines had gained while they were losing liberty.  We possess these several drafts of constitutions.  Some recommend tyranny; some incline to aristocracy, or what Italians called Governo Stretto; some to democracy, or Governo Largo; some to an eclectic compound of the other forms, or Governo Misto.  More consummate masterpieces of constructive ingenuity can hardly be imagined.  What is omitted in all, is just what no doctrinaire, no nostrum can communicate - the breath of life, the principle of organic growth.  Things had come, indeed, to a melancholy pass for Florence when her tyrant, in order to confirm his hold upon her, had to devise these springs and irons to support her tottering limbs.

XXIV

While the archbishop and the doctors were debating, a plot was hatching in the Rucellai Gardens.  It was here that the Florentine Academy now held their meetings.  For this society Machiavelli wrote his ‘Treatise on the Art of War,’ and his ‘Discourses upon Livy.’  The former was an exposition of Machiavelli’s scheme for creating a national militia, as the only safeguard for Italy, exposed at this period to the invasions of great foreign armies.  The latter is one of the three or four masterpieces produced by the Florentine school of critical historians.  Stimulated by the daring speculations of Machiavelli, and fired to enthusiasm by their study of antiquity, the younger academicians formed a conspiracy for murdering Giulio de’ Medici, and restoring the republic on a Roman model.  An intercepted letter betrayed their plans.  Two of the conspirators were taken and beheaded.  Others escaped.  But the discovery of this conjuration put a stop to Giulio’s scheme of reforming the State.  Henceforth he ruled Florence like a despot, mild in manners, cautious in the exercise of arbitrary power, but firm in his autocracy.  The Condottiere.  Alessandro Vitelli, with a company of soldiers, was taken into service for the protection of his person and the intimidation of the citizens.

In 1523, the Pope, Adrian VI., expired after a short papacy, from which he gained no honour and Italy no profit.  Giulio hurried to Rome, and, by the clever use of his large influence, caused himself to be elected with the title of Clement VII.  In Florence he left Silvio Passerini, Cardinal of Cortona, as his vicegerent and the guardian of the two boys Alessandro and Ippolito.  The discipline of many years had accustomed the Florentines to a government of priests.  Still the burghers, mindful of their ancient liberties, were galled by the yoke of a Cortonese, sprung up from one of their subject cities; nor could they bear the bastards who were being reared to rule them.  Foreigners threw it in their teeth that Florence, the city glorious of art and freedom, was become a stable for mules - stalla da muli, in the expressive language of popular sarcasm.  Bastardy, it may be said in passing, carried with it small dishonour among the Italians.  The Estensi were all illegitimate; the Aragonese house in Naples sprang from Alfonso’s natural son; and children of Popes ranked among the princes.  Yet the uncertainty of Alessandro’s birth and the base condition of his mother made the prospect of this tyrant peculiarly odious; while the primacy of a foreign cardinal in the midst of citizens whose spirit was still unbroken, embittered the cup of humiliation.  The Casa Medici held its authority by a slender thread, and depended more upon the disunion of the burghers than on any power of its own.  It could always reckon on the favour of the lower populace, who gained profit and amusement from the presence of a court.  The Ottimati again hoped more from a weak despotism than from a commonwealth, where their privileges would have been merged in the mass of the Grand Council.  Thus the sympathies of the plebeians and the selfishness of the rich patricians prevented the republic from asserting itself.  On this meagre basis of personal cupidity the Medici sustained themselves.  What made the situation still more delicate, and at the same time protracted the feeble rule of Clement, was that neither the Florentines nor the Medici had any army.  Face to face with a potentate so considerable as the Pope, a free State could not be established without military force.  On the other hand, the Medici, supported by a mere handful of mercenaries, had no power to resist a popular rising if any external event should inspire the middle classes with a hope of liberty.

XXV

Clement assumed the tiara at a moment of great difficulty.  Leo had ruined the finance of Rome.  France and Spain were still contending for the possession of Italy.  While acting as Vice-Chancellor, Giulio de’ Medici had seemed to hold the reins with a firm grasp, and men expected that he would prove a powerful Pope; but in those days he had Leo to help him; and Leo, though indolent, was an abler man than his cousin.  He planned, and Giulio executed.  Obliged to act now for himself, Clement revealed the weakness of his nature.  That weakness was irresolution, craft without wisdom, diplomacy without knowledge of men.  He raised the storm, and showed himself incapable of guiding it.  This is not the place to tell by what a series of crooked schemes and cross purposes he brought upon himself the ruin of the Church and Rome, to relate his disagreement with the Emperor, or to describe again the sack of the Eternal City by the rabble of the Constable de Bourbon’s army.  That wreck of Rome in 1527 was the closing scene of the Italian Renaissance - the last of the Apocalyptic tragedies foretold by Savonarola - the death of the old age.

When the Florentines knew what was happening in Rome, they rose and forced the Cardinal Passerini to depart with the Medicean bastards from the city.  The youth demanded arms for the defence of the town, and they received them.  The whole male population was enrolled in a militia.  The Grand Council was reformed, and the republic was restored upon the basis of 1495.  Niccolo Capponi was elected Gonfalonier.  The name of Christ was again registered as chief of the commonwealth - to such an extent did the memory of Savonarola still sway the popular imagination.  The new State hastened to form an alliance with France, and Malatesta Baglioni was chosen as military Commander-in-Chief.  Meanwhile the city armed itself for siege - Michel Angelo Buonarroti and Francesco da San Gallo undertaking the construction of new forts and ramparts.  These measures were adopted with sudden decision, because it was soon known that Clement had made peace with the Emperor, and that the army which had sacked Rome was going to be marched on Florence.

XXVI

In the month of August 1529 the Prince of Orange assembled his forces at Terni, and thence advanced by easy stages into Tuscany.  As he approached, the Florentines laid waste their suburbs, and threw down their wreath of towers, in order that the enemy might have no harbourage or points of vantage for attack.  Their troops were concentrated within the city, where a new Gonfalonier, Francesco Carducci, furiously opposed to the Medici, and attached to the Piagnoni party, now ruled.  On September 4th the Prince of Orange appeared before the walls, and opened the memorable siege.  It lasted eight months, at the end of which time, betrayed by their generals, divided among themselves, and worn out with delays, the Florentines capitulated.  Florence was paid as compensation for the insult offered to the pontiff in the sack of Rome.

The long yoke of the Medici had undermined the character of the Florentines.  This, their last glorious struggle for liberty, was but a flash in the pan - a final flare-up of the dying lamp.  The city was not satisfied with slavery; but it had no capacity for united action.  The Ottimati were egotistic and jealous of the people.  The Palleschi desired to restore the Medici at any price - some of them frankly wishing for a principality, others trusting that the old quasi-republican government might still be reinstated.  The Red Republicans, styled Libertini and Arrabbiati, clung together in blind hatred of the Medicean party; but they had no further policy to guide them.  The Piagnoni, or Frateschi, stuck to the memory of Savonarola, and believed that angels would descend to guard the battlements when human help had failed.  These enthusiasts still formed the true nerve of the nation - the class that might have saved the State, if salvation had been possible.  Even as it was, the energy of their fanaticism prolonged the siege until resistance seemed no longer physically possible.  The hero developed by the crisis was Francesco Ferrucci, a plebeian who had passed his youth in manual labour, and who now displayed rare military genius.  He fell fighting outside the walls of Florence.  Had he commanded the troops from the beginning, and remained inside the city, it is just possible that the fate of the war might have been less disastrous.  As it was, Malatesta Baglioni, the Commander-in-Chief, turned out an arrant scoundrel.  He held secret correspondence with Clement and the Prince of Orange.  It was he who finally sold Florence to her foes, ‘putting on his head,’ as the Doge of Venice said before the Senate, ’the cap of the biggest traitor upon record.’

XXVII

What remains of Florentine history may be briefly told.  Clement, now the undisputed arbiter of power and honour in the city, chose Alessandro de’ Medici to be prince.  Alessandro was created Duke of Civita di Penna, and married to a natural daughter of Charles V. Ippolito was made a cardinal.  Ippolito would have preferred a secular to a priestly kingdom; nor did he conceal his jealousy for his cousin.  Therefore Alessandro had him poisoned.  Alessandro in his turn was murdered by his kinsman, Lorenzino de’ Medici.  Lorenzino paid the usual penalty of tyrannicide some years later.  When Alessandro was killed in 1539, Clement had himself been dead five years.  Thus the whole posterity of Cosimo de’ Medici, with the exception of Catherine, Queen of France, was utterly extinguished.  But the Medici had struck root so firmly in the State, and had so remodelled it upon the type of tyranny, that the Florentines were no longer able to do without them.  The chiefs of the Ottimati selected Cosimo, the representative of Giovanni the Invincible, for their prince, and thus the line of the elder Lorenzo came at last to power.  This Cosimo was a boy of eighteen, fond of field-sports, and unused to party intrigues.  When Francesco Guicciardini offered him a privy purse of one hundred and twenty thousand ducats annually, together with the presidency of Florence, this wily politician hoped that he would rule the State through Cosimo, and realise at last that dream of the Ottimati, a Governo Stretto or di Pochi.  He was notably mistaken in his calculations.  The first days of Cosimo’s administration showed that he possessed the craft of his family and the vigour of his immediate progenitors, and that he meant to be sole master in Florence.  He it was who obtained the title of Grand Duke of Tuscany from the Pope - a title confirmed by the Emperor, fortified by Austrian alliances, and transmitted through his heirs to the present century.

XXVIII

In this sketch of Florentine history, I have purposely omitted all details that did not bear upon the constitutional history of the republic, or on the growth of the Medici as despots; because I wanted to present a picture of the process whereby that family contrived to fasten itself upon the freest and most cultivated State in Italy.  This success the Medici owed mainly to their own obstinacy, and to the weakness of republican institutions in Florence.  Their power was founded upon wealth in the first instance, and upon the ingenuity with which they turned the favour of the proletariate to use.  It was confirmed by the mistakes and failures of their enemies, by Rinaldo degli Albizzi’s attack on Cosimo, by the conspiracy of Neroni and Pitti against Piero, and by Francesco de’ Pazzi’s attempt to assassinate Lorenzo.  It was still further strengthened by the Medicean sympathy for arts and letters - a sympathy which placed both Cosimo and Lorenzo at the head of the Renaissance movement, and made them worthy to represent Florence, the city of genius, in the fifteenth century.  While thus founding and cementing their dynastic influence upon the basis of a widespread popularity, the Medici employed persistent cunning in the enfeeblement of the Republic.  It was their policy not to plant themselves by force or acts of overt tyranny, but to corrupt ambitious citizens, to secure the patronage of public officers, and to render the spontaneous working of the State machinery impossible.  By pursuing this policy over a long series of years they made the revival of liberty in 1494, and again in 1527, ineffectual.  While exiled from Florence, they never lost the hope of returning as masters, so long as the passions they had excited, and they alone could gratify, remained in full activity.  These passions were avarice and egotism, the greed of the grasping Ottimati, the jealousy of the nobles, the self-indulgence of the proletariate.  Yet it is probable they might have failed to recover Florence, on one or other of these two occasions, but for the accident which placed Giovanni de’ Medici on the Papal chair, and enabled him to put Giulio in the way of the same dignity.  From the accession of Leo in 1513 to the year 1527 the Medici ruled Florence from Rome, and brought the power of the Church into the service of their despotism.  After that date they were still further aided by the imperial policy of Charles V., who chose to govern Italy through subject princes, bound to himself by domestic alliances and powerful interests.  One of these was Cosimo, the first Grand Duke of Tuscany.