It is a noticeable fact about the popular songs of Tuscany that they are almost exclusively devoted to love.  The Italians in general have no ballad literature resembling that of our Border or that of Spain.  The tragic histories of their noble families, the great deeds of their national heroes, and the sufferings of their country during centuries of warfare, have left but few traces in their rustic poetry.  It is true that some districts are less utterly barren than others in these records of the past.  The Sicilian people’s poetry, for example, preserves a memory of the famous Vespers; and one or two terrible stories of domestic tragedy, like the tale of Rosmunda in ’La Donna Lombarda,’ the romance of the Baronessa di Carini, and the so-called Caso di Sciacca, may still be heard upon the lips of the people.  But these exceptions are insignificant in comparison with the vast mass of songs which deal with love; and I cannot find that Tuscany, where the language of this minstrelsy is purest, and where the artistic instincts of the race are strongest, has anything at all approaching to our ballads. Though the Tuscan contadini are always singing, it rarely happens that

    The plaintive numbers flow
  For old, unhappy, far-off things,
    And battles long ago.

On the contrary, we may be sure, when we hear their voices ringing through the olive-groves or macchi, that they are chanting

    Some more humble lay,
  Familiar matter of to-day, -
  Some natural sorrow, loss, or pain,
  That has been, and may be again;

or else, since their melodies are by no means uniformly sad, some ditty of the joyousness of springtime or the ecstasy of love.

This defect of anything corresponding to our ballads of ‘Chevy Chase,’ or ‘Sir Patrick Spens,’ or ‘Gil Morrice,’ in a poetry which is still so vital with the life of past centuries, is all the more remarkable because Italian history is distinguished above that of other nations by tragic episodes peculiarly suited to poetic treatment.  Many of these received commemoration in the fourteenth century from Dante; others were embodied in the novelle of Boccaccio and Cinthio and Bandello, whence they passed into the dramas of Shakspere, Webster, Ford, and their contemporaries.  But scarcely an echo can be traced through all the volumes of the recently collected popular songs.  We must seek for an explanation of this fact partly in the conditions of Italian life, and partly in the nature of the Italian imagination.  Nowhere in Italy do we observe that intimate connection between the people at large and the great nobles which generates the sympathy of clanship.  Politics in most parts of the peninsula fell at a very early period into the hands either of irresponsible princes, who ruled like despots, or else of burghers, who administered the state within the walls of their Palazzo Pubblico.  The people remained passive spectators of contemporary history.  The loyalty of subjects to their sovereign which animates the Spanish ballads, the loyalty of retainers to their chief which gives life to the tragic ballads of the Border, did not exist in Italy.  Country-folk felt no interest in the doings of Visconti or Medici or Malatesti sufficient to arouse the enthusiasm of local bards or to call forth the celebration of their princely tragedies in verse.  Amid the miseries of foreign wars and home oppression, it seemed better to demand from verse and song some mitigation of the woes of life, some expression of personal emotion, than to record the disasters which to us at a distance appear poetic in their grandeur.

These conditions of popular life, although unfavourable to the production of ballad poetry, would not, however, have been sufficient by themselves to check its growth, if the Italians had been strongly impelled to literature of this type by their nature.  The real reason why their Volkslieder are amorous and personal is to be found in the quality of their imagination.  The Italian genius is not creatively imaginative in the highest sense.  The Italians have never, either in the ancient or the modern age, produced a great drama or a national epic, the ‘AEneid’ and the ‘Divine Comedy’ being obviously of different species from the ‘Iliad’ or the ‘Nibelungen Lied.’  Modern Italians, again, are distinguished from the French, the Germans, and the English in being the conscious inheritors of an older, august, and strictly classical civilisation.  The great memories of Rome weigh down their faculties of invention.  It would also seem as though they shrank in their poetry from the representation of what is tragic and spirit-stirring.  They incline to what is cheerful, brilliant, or pathetic.  The dramatic element in human life, external to the personality of the poet, which exercised so strong a fascination over our ballad-bards and playwrights, has but little attraction for the Italian.  When he sings, he seeks to express his own individual emotions - his love, his joy, his jealousy, his anger, his despair.  The language which he uses is at the same time direct in its intensity, and hyperbolical in its display of fancy; but it lacks those imaginative touches which exalt the poetry of personal passion into a sublimer region.  Again, the Italians are deficient in a sense of the supernatural.  The wraiths that cannot rest because their love is still unsatisfied, the voices which cry by night over field and fell, the water-spirits and forest fairies, the second-sight of coming woes, the presentiment of death, the warnings and the charms and spells, which fill the popular poetry of all Northern nations, are absent in Italian songs.  In the whole of Tigri’s collection I only remember one mention of a ghost.  It is not that the Italians are deficient in superstitions of all kinds.  Every one has heard of their belief in the evil eye, for instance.  But they do not connect this kind of fetichism with their poetry; and even their greatest poets, with the exception of Dante, have shown no capacity or no inclination for enhancing the imaginative effect of their creations by an appeal to the instinct of mysterious awe.

The truth is that the Italians as a race are distinguished as much by a firm grasp upon the practical realities of existence as by powerful emotions.  They have but little of that dreamy Schwaermerei with which the people of the North are largely gifted.  The true sphere of their genius is painting.  What appeals to the imagination through the eyes, they have expressed far better than any other modern nation.  But their poetry, like their music, is deficient in tragic sublimity and in the higher qualities of imaginative creation.

It may seem paradoxical to say this of the nation which produced Dante.  But we must remember not to judge races by single and exceptional men of genius.  Petrarch, the Troubadour of exquisite emotions, Boccaccio, who touches all the keys of life so lightly, Ariosto, with the smile of everlasting April on his lips, and Tasso, excellent alone when he confines himself to pathos or the picturesque, are no exceptions to what I have just said.  Yet these poets pursued their art with conscious purpose.  The tragic splendour of Greece, the majesty of Rome, were not unknown to them.  Far more is it true that popular poetry in Italy, proceeding from the hearts of uncultivated peasants and expressing the national character in its simplicity, displays none of the stuff from which the greatest works of art in verse, epics and dramas, can be wrought.  But within its own sphere of personal emotion, this popular poetry is exquisitely melodious, inexhaustibly rich, unique in modern literature for the direct expression which it has given to every shade of passion.

Signor Tigri’s collection, to which I shall confine my attention in this paper, consists of eleven hundred and eighty-five rispetti, with the addition of four hundred and sixty-one stornelli.  Rispetto, it may be said in passing, is the name commonly given throughout Italy to short poems, varying from six to twelve lines, constructed on the principle of the octave stanza.  That is to say, the first part of the rispetto consists of four or six lines with alternate rhymes, while one or more couplets, called the ripresa, complete the poem. The stornello, or ritournelle, never exceeds three lines, and owes its name to the return which it makes at the end of the last line to the rhyme given by the emphatic word of the first.  Browning, in his poem of ‘Fra Lippo Lippi,’ has accustomed English ears to one common species of the stornello, which sets out with the name of a flower, and rhymes with it, as thus: 

    Fior di narciso. 
  Prigionero d’amore mi son reso,
  Nel rimirare il tuo leggiadro viso.

The divisions of those two sorts of songs, to which Tigri gives names like The Beauty of Women, The Beauty of Men, Falling in Love, Serenades, Happy Love, Unhappy Love, Parting, Absence, Letters, Return to Home, Anger and Jealousy, Promises, Entreaties and Reproaches, Indifference, Treachery and Abandonment, prove with what fulness the various phases of the tender passion are treated.  Through the whole fifteen hundred the one theme of Love is never relinquished.  Only two persons, ‘I’ and ‘thou,’ appear upon the scene; yet so fresh and so various are the moods of feeling, that one can read them from first to last without too much satiety.

To seek for the authors of these ditties would be useless.  Some of them may be as old as the fourteenth century; others may have been made yesterday.  Some are the native product of the Tuscan mountain villages, especially of the regions round Pistoja and Siena, where on the spurs of the Apennines the purest Italian is vernacular.  Some, again, are importations from other provinces, especially from Sicily and Naples, caught up by the peasants of Tuscany and adapted to their taste and style; for nothing travels faster than a Volkslied.  Born some morning in a noisy street of Naples, or on the solitary slopes of Radicofani, before the week is out, a hundred voices are repeating it.  Waggoners and pedlars carry it across the hills to distant towns.  It floats with the fishermen from bay to bay, and marches with the conscript to his barrack in a far-off province.  Who was the first to give it shape and form?  No one asks, and no one cares.  A student well acquainted with the habits of the people in these matters says, ’If they knew the author of a ditty, they would not learn it, far less if they discovered that it was a scholar’s.’  If the cadence takes their ear, they consecrate the song at once by placing it upon the honoured list of ‘ancient lays.’  Passing from lip to lip and from district to district, it receives additions and alterations, and becomes the property of a score of provinces.  Meanwhile the poet from whose soul it blossomed that first morning like a flower, remains contented with obscurity.  The wind has carried from his lips the thistledown of song, and sown it on a hundred hills and meadows, far and wide.  After such wise is the birth of all truly popular compositions.  Who knows, for instance, the veritable author of many of those mighty German chorals which sprang into being at the period of the Reformation?  The first inspiration was given, probably, to a single mind; but the melody, as it has reached us, is the product of a thousand.  This accounts for the variations which in different dialects and districts the same song presents.  Meanwhile, it is sometimes possible to trace the authorship of a ballad with marked local character to an improvisatore famous in his village, or to one of those professional rhymesters whom the country-folk employ in the composition of love-letters to their sweethearts at a distance. Tommaseo, in the preface to his ’Canti Popolari,’ mentions in particular a Beatrice di Pian degli Ontani, whose poetry was famous through the mountains of Pistoja; and Tigri records by name a little girl called Cherubina, who made rispetti by the dozen as she watched her sheep upon the hills.  One of the songs in his collection contains a direct reference to the village letter-writer: -

  Salutatemi, bella, lo scrivano;
  Non lo conosco e non so chi si sia. 
  A me mi pare un poeta sovrano,
  Tanto gli e sperto nella poesia.

While I am writing thus about the production and dissemination of these love-songs, I cannot help remembering three days and nights which I once spent at sea between Genoa and Palermo, in the company of some conscripts who were going to join their regiment in Sicily.  They were lads from the Milanese and Liguria, and they spent a great portion of their time in composing and singing poetry.  One of them had a fine baritone voice; and when the sun had set, his comrades gathered round him and begged him to sing to them ’Con quella patetica tua voce.’  Then followed hours of singing, the low monotonous melodies of his ditties harmonising wonderfully with the tranquillity of night, so clear and calm that the sky and all its stars were mirrored on the sea, through which we moved as if in a dream.  Sometimes the songs provoked conversation, which, as is usual in Italy, turned mostly upon ‘lé bellezze delle donne.’  I remember that once an animated discussion about the relative merits of blondes and brunettes nearly ended in a quarrel, when the youngest of the whole band, a boy of about seventeen, put a stop to the dispute by theatrically raising his eyes and arms to heaven and crying, ‘Tu sei innamorato d’ una grande Diana cacciatrice nera, ed io d’ una bella Venere bionda.’  Though they were but village lads, they supported their several opinions with arguments not unworthy of Firenzuola, and showed the greatest delicacy of feeling in the treatment of a subject which could scarcely have failed to reveal any latent coarseness.

The purity of all the Italian love-songs collected by Tigri is very remarkable. Although the passion expressed in them is Oriental in its vehemence, not a word falls which could offend a virgin’s ear.  The one desire of lovers is lifelong union in marriage.  The damo - for so a sweetheart is termed in Tuscany - trembles until he has gained the approval of his future mother-in-law, and forbids the girl he is courting to leave her house to talk to him at night: -

  Dice che tu ti affacci alia finestra;
  Ma non ti dice che tu vada fuora,
  Perche, la notte, e cosa disonestà.

All the language of his love is respectful. Signore, or master of my soul, madonna, anima mia, dolce mio ben, nobil persona, are the terms of adoration with which he approaches his mistress.  The elevation of feeling and perfect breeding which Manzoni has so well delineated in the loves of Renzo and Lucia are traditional among Italian country-folk.  They are conscious that true gentleness is no matter of birth or fortune: -

  E tu non mi lasciar per poverezza,
  Che povertà non guasta gentilezza.

This in itself constitutes an important element of culture, and explains to some extent the high romantic qualities of their impassioned poetry.  The beauty of their land reveals still more.  ’O fortunatos nimium sua si bona norint!’ Virgil’s exclamation is as true now as it was when he sang the labours of Italian country-folk some nineteen centuries ago.  To a traveller from the north there is a pathos even in the contrast between the country in which these children of a happier climate toil, and those bleak, winter-beaten fields where our own peasants pass their lives.  The cold nights and warm days of Tuscan springtime are like a Swiss summer.  They make rich pasture and a hardy race of men.  Tracts of corn and oats and rye alternate with patches of flax in full flower, with meadows yellow with buttercups or pink with ragged robin; the young vines, running from bough to bough of elm and mulberry, are just coming into leaf.  The poplars are fresh with bright green foliage.  On the verge of this blooming plain stand ancient cities ringed with hills, some rising to snowy Apennines, some covered with white convents and sparkling with villas.  Cypresses shoot, black and spirelike, amid grey clouds of olive-boughs upon the slopes; and above, where vegetation borders on the barren rock, are masses of ilex and arbutus interspersed with chestnut-trees not yet in leaf.  Men and women are everywhere at work, ploughing with great white oxen, or tilling the soil with spades six feet in length - Sabellian ligones.  The songs of nightingales among acacia-trees, and the sharp scream of swallows wheeling in air, mingle with the monotonous chant that always rises from the country-people at their toil.  Here and there on points of vantage, where the hill-slopes sink into the plain, cluster white villages with flower-like campanili.  It is there that the veglia, or evening rendezvous of lovers, the serenades and balls and feste, of which one hears so much in the popular minstrelsy, take place.  Of course it would not be difficult to paint the darker shades of this picture.  Autumn comes, when the contadini of Lucca and Siena and Pistoja go forth to work in the unwholesome marshes of the Maremma, or of Corsica and Sardinia.  Dismal superstitions and hereditary hatreds cast their blight over a life externally so fair.  The bad government of centuries has perverted in many ways the instincts of a people naturally mild and cheerful and peace-loving.  But as far as nature can make men happy, these husbandmen are surely to be reckoned fortunate, and in their songs we find little to remind us of what is otherwise than sunny in their lot.

A translator of these Volkslieder has to contend with difficulties of no ordinary kind.  The freshness of their phrases, the spontaneity of their sentiments, and the melody of their unstudied cadences, are inimitable.  So again is the peculiar effect of their frequent transitions from the most fanciful imagery to the language of prose.  No mere student can hope to rival, far less to reproduce, in a foreign tongue, the charm of verse which sprang untaught from the hearts of simple folk, which lives unwritten on the lips of lovers, and which should never be dissociated from singing. There are, besides, peculiarities in the very structure of the popular rispetto.  The constant repetition of the same phrase with slight variations, especially in the closing lines of the ripresa of the Tuscan rispetto, gives an antique force and flavour to these ditties, like that which we appreciate in our own ballads, but which may easily, in the translation, degenerate into weakness and insipidity.  The Tuscan rhymester, again, allows himself the utmost licence.  It is usual to find mere assonances like bene and piacere, oro and volo, ala and alata, in the place of rhymes; while such remote resemblances of sound as colli and poggi, lascia and piazza, are far from uncommon.  To match these rhymes by joining ‘home’ and ‘alone,’ ‘time’ and ‘shine,’ &c, would of course be a matter of no difficulty; but it has seemed to me on the whole best to preserve, with some exceptions, such accuracy as the English ear requires.  I fear, however, that, after all, these wild-flowers of song, transplanted to another climate and placed in a hothouse, will appear but pale and hectic by the side of their robuster brethren of the Tuscan hills.

In the following serenade many of the peculiarities which I have just noticed occur.  I have also adhered to the irregularity of rhyme which may be usually observed about the middle of the poem : -

  Sleeping or waking, thou sweet face,
  Lift up thy fair and tender brow: 
  List to thy love in this still place;
  He calls thee to thy window now: 
  But bids thee not the house to quit,
  Since in the night this were not meet. 
  Come to thy window, stay within;
  I stand without, and sing and sing: 
  Come to thy window, stay at home;
  I stand without, and make my moan.

Here is a serenade of a more impassioned character : -

  I come to visit thee, my beauteous queen,
  Thee and the house where thou art harboured: 
  All the long way upon my knees, my queen,
  I kiss the earth where’er thy footsteps tread. 
  I kiss the earth, and gaze upon the wall,
  Whereby thou goest, maid imperial! 
  I kiss the earth, and gaze upon the house,
  Whereby thou farest, queen most beauteous!

In the next the lover, who has passed the whole night beneath his sweetheart’s window, takes leave at the break of day.  The feeling of the half-hour before dawn, when the sound of bells rises to meet the growing light, and both form a prelude to the glare and noise of day, is expressed with much unconscious poetry : -

  I see the dawn e’en now begin to peer: 
  Therefore I take my leave, and cease to sing,
  See how the windows open far and near,
  And hear the bells of morning, how they ring! 
  Through heaven and earth the sounds of ringing swell;
  Therefore, bright jasmine flower, sweet maid, farewell! 
  Through heaven and Rome the sound of ringing goes;
  Farewell, bright jasmine flower, sweet maiden rose! 
The next is more quaint : -

  I come by night, I come, my soul aflame;
  I come in this fair hour of your sweet sleep;
  And should I wake you up, it were a shame. 
  I cannot sleep, and lo!  I break your sleep. 
  To wake you were a shame from your deep rest;
  Love never sleeps, nor they whom Love hath blest.

A very great many rispetti are simple panegyrics of the beloved, to find similitude for whose beauty heaven and earth are ransacked.  The compliment of the first line in the following song is perfect : -

  Beauty was born with you, fair maid: 
  The sun and moon inclined to you;
  On you the snow her whiteness laid
  The rose her rich and radiant hue: 
  Saint Magdalen her hair unbound,
  And Cupid taught you how to wound -
  How to wound hearts Dan Cupid taught: 
  Your beauty drives me love-distraught.

The lady in the next was December’s child : -

  O beauty, born in winter’s night,
  Born in the month of spotless snow: 
  Your face is like a rose so bright;
  Your mother may be proud of you! 
  She may be proud, lady of love,
  Such sunlight shines her house above: 
  She may be proud, lady of heaven,
  Such sunlight to her home is given.

The sea wind is the source of beauty to another : -

  Nay, marvel not you are so fair;
  For you beside the sea were born: 
  The sea-waves keep you fresh and fair,
  Like roses on their leafy thorn. 
  If roses grow on the rose-bush,
  Your roses through midwinter blush;
  If roses bloom on the rose-bed,
  Your face can show both white and red.

The eyes of a fourth are compared, after quite a new and original fashion, to stars : -

  The moon hath risen her plaint to lay
  Before the face of Love Divine. 
  Saying in heaven she will not stay,
  Since you have stolen what made her shine: 
  Aloud she wails with sorrow wan, -
  She told her stars and two are gone: 
  They are not there; you have them now;
  They are the eyes in your bright brow.

Nor are girls less ready to praise their lovers, but that they do not dwell so much on physical perfection.  Here is a pleasant greeting : -

  O welcome, welcome, lily white,
  Thou fairest youth of all the valley! 
  When I’m with you, my soul is light;
  I chase away dull melancholy. 
  I chase all sadness from my heart: 
  Then welcome, dearest that thou art! 
  I chase all sadness from my side: 
  Then welcome, O my love, my pride! 
  I chase all sadness far away: 
  Then welcome, welcome, love, to-day!

The image of a lily is very prettily treated in the next (p 79): -

  I planted a lily yestreen at my window;
  I set it yestreen, and to-day it sprang up: 
  When I opened the latch and leaned out of my window,
  It shadowed my face with its beautiful cup. 
  O lily, my lily, how tall you are grown! 
  Remember how dearly I loved you, my own. 
  O lily, my lily, you’ll grow to the sky! 
  Remember I love you for ever and aye.

The same thought of love growing like a flower receives another turn : -

  On yonder hill I saw a flower;
  And, could it thence be hither borne,
  I’d plant it here within my bower,
  And water it both eve and morn. 
  Small water wants the stem so straight;
  ’Tis a love-lily stout as fate. 
  Small water wants the root so strong: 
  ’Tis a love-lily lasting long. 
  Small water wants the flower so sheen: 
  ’Tis a love-lily ever green.

Envious tongues have told a girl that her complexion is not good.  She replies, with imagery like that of Virgil’s ’Alba ligustra cadunt, vaccinia nigra leguntur’ : -

  Think it no grief that I am brown,
  For all brunettes are born to reign: 
  White is the snow, yet trodden down;
  Black pepper kings need not disdain: 
  White snow lies mounded on the vales
  Black pepper’s weighed in brazen scales.

Another song runs on the same subject : -

  The whole world tells me that I’m brown,
  The brown earth gives us goodly corn: 
  The clove-pink too, however brown,
  Yet proudly in the hand ’tis borne. 
  They say my love is black, but he
  Shines like an angel-form to me: 
  They say my love is dark as night;
  To me he seems a shape of light.

The freshness of the following spring song recalls the ballads of the
Val de Vire in Normandy : -

  It was the morning of the first of May,
  Into the close I went to pluck a flower;
  And there I found a bird of woodland gay,
  Who whiled with songs of love the silent hour. 
  O bird, who fliest from fair Florence, how
  Dear love begins, I prithee teach me now! -
  Love it begins with music and with song,
  And ends with sorrow and with sighs ere long.

Love at first sight is described : -

  The very moment that we met,
  That moment love began to beat: 
  One glance of love we gave, and swore
  Never to part for evermore;
  We swore together, sighing deep,
  Never to part till Death’s long sleep.

Here too is a memory of the first days of love : -

  If I remember, it was May
  When love began between us two: 
  The roses in the close were gay,
  The cherries blackened on the bough. 
  O cherries black and pears so green! 
  Of maidens fair you are the queen. 
  Fruit of black cherry and sweet pear! 
  Of sweethearts you’re the queen, I swear.

The troth is plighted with such promises as these : -

  Or ere I leave you, love divine,
  Dead tongues shall stir and utter speech,
  And running rivers flow with wine,
  And fishes swim upon the beach;
  Or ere I leave or shun you, these
  Lemons shall grow on orange-trees.

The girl confesses her love after this fashion : -

  Passing across the billowy sea,
  I let, alas, my poor heart fall;
  I bade the sailors bring it me;
  They said they had not seen it fall. 
  I asked the sailors, one and two;
  They said that I had given it you. 
  I asked the sailors, two and three;
  They said that I had given it thee. 
It is not uncommon to speak of love as a sea.  Here is a curious play upon this image : -

  Ho, Cupid!  Sailor Cupid, ho! 
  Lend me awhile that bark of thine;
  For on the billows I will go,
  To find my love who once was mine: 
  And if I find her, she shall wear
  A chain around her neck so fair,
  Around her neck a glittering bond,
  Four stars, a lily, a diamond.

It is also possible that the same thought may occur in the second line of the next ditty : -

  Beneath the earth I’ll make a way
  To pass the sea and come to you. 
  People will think I’m gone away;
  But, dear, I shall be seeing you. 
  People will say that I am dead;
  But we’ll pluck roses white and red: 
  People will think I’m lost for aye;
  But we’ll pluck roses, you and I.

All the little daily incidents are beautified by love.  Here is a lover who thanks the mason for making his window so close upon the road that he can see his sweetheart as she passes : -

  Blest be the mason’s hand who built
  This house of mine by the roadside,
  And made my window low and wide
  For me to watch my love go by. 
  And if I knew when she went by,
  My window should be fairly gilt;
  And if I knew what time she went,
  My window should be flower-besprent.

Here is a conceit which reminds one of the pretty epistle of Philostratus, in which the footsteps of the beloved are called [Greek:  erereismena philempta] : -

  What time I see you passing by;
  I sit and count the steps you take: 
  You take the steps; I sit and sigh: 
  Step after step, my sighs awake. 
  Tell me, dear love, which more abound,
  My sighs or your steps on the ground? 
  Tell me, dear love, which are the most,
  Your light steps or the sighs they cost?

A girl complains that she cannot see her lover’s house :-

  I lean upon the lattice, and look forth
  To see the house where my lover dwells. 
  There grows an envious tree that spoils my mirth: 
  Cursed be the man who set it on these hills! 
  But when those jealous boughs are all unclad,
  I then shall see the cottage of my lad: 
  When once that tree is rooted from the hills,
  I’ll see the house wherein my lover dwells.

In the same mood a girl who has just parted from her sweetheart is angry with the hill beyond which he is travelling : -

  I see and see, yet see not what I would: 
  I see the leaves atremble on the tree: 
  I saw my love where on the hill he stood,
  Yet see him not drop downward to the lea. 
     O traitor hill, what will you do? 
     I ask him, live or dead, from you. 
     O traitor hill, what shall it be? 
     I ask him, live or dead, from thee.

All the songs of love in absence are very quaint.  Here is one which calls our nursery rhymes to mind : -

I would I were a bird so free,
That I had wings to fly away: 
Unto that window I would flee,
Where stands my love and grinds all day. 
Grind, miller, grind; the water’s deep! 
I cannot grind; love makes me weep. 
Grind, miller, grind; the waters flow! 
I cannot grind; love wastes me so.

The next begins after the same fashion, but breaks into a very shower of benedictions : -

  Would God I were a swallow free,
  That I had wings to fly away: 
  Upon the miller’s door I’d be,
  Where stands my love and grinds all day: 
  Upon the door, upon the sill,
  Where stays my love; - God bless him still! 
  God bless my love, and blessed be
  His house, and bless my house for me;
  Yea, blest be both, and ever blest
  My lover’s house, and all the rest!

The girl alone at home in her garden sees a wood-dove flying by and calls to it : -

 O dove, who fliest far to yonder hill,
  Dear dove, who in the rock hast made thy nest,
  Let me a feather from thy pinion pull,
  For I will write to him who loves me best. 
  And when I’ve written it and made it clear,
  I’ll give thee back thy feather, dove so dear: 
  And when I’ve written it and sealed it, then
  I’ll give thee back thy feather love-laden.

A swallow is asked to lend the same kind service : -

 O swallow, swallow, flying through the air,
  Turn, turn, I prithee, from thy flight above! 
  Give me one feather from thy wing so fair,
  For I will write a letter to my love. 
  When I have written it and made it clear,
  I’ll give thee back thy feather, swallow dear;
  When I have written it on paper white,
  I’ll make, I swear, thy missing feather right;
  When once ’tis written on fair leaves of gold,
  I’ll give thee back thy wing and flight so bold.

Long before Tennyson’s song in the ‘Princess,’ it would seem that swallows were favourite messengers of love.  In the next song which I translate, the repetition of one thought with delicate variation is full of character : -

  O swallow, flying over hill and plain,
  If thou shouldst find my love, oh bid him come! 
  And tell him, on these mountains I remain
  Even as a lamb who cannot find her home: 
  And tell him, I am left all, all alone,
  Even as a tree whose flowers are overblown: 
  And tell him, I am left without a mate
  Even as a tree whose boughs are desolate: 
  And tell him, I am left uncomforted
  Even as the grass upon the meadows dead.

The following is spoken by a girl who has been watching the lads of the village returning from their autumn service in the plain, and whose damo comes the last of all : -

  O dear my love, you come too late! 
  What found you by the way to do? 
  I saw your comrades pass the gate,
  But yet not you, dear heart, not you! 
  If but a little more you’d stayed,
  With sighs you would have found me dead;
  If but a while you’d keep me crying,
  With sighs you would have found me dying.

The amantium irae find a place too in these rustic ditties.  A girl explains to her sweetheart : -

  ’Twas told me and vouchsafed for true,
  Your kin are wroth as wroth can be;
  For loving me they swear at you,
  They swear at you because of me;
  Your father, mother, all your folk,
  Because you love me, chafe and choke! 
  Then set your kith and kin at ease;
  Set them at ease and let me die: 
  Set the whole clan of them at ease;
  Set them at ease and see me die!

Another suspects that her damo has paid his suit to a rival : -

  On Sunday morning well I knew
  Where gaily dressed you turned your feet;
  And there were many saw it too,
  And came to tell me through the street: 
  And when they spoke, I smiled, ah me! 
  But in my room wept privately;
  And when they spoke, I sang for pride,
  But in my room alone I sighed.

Then come reconciliations : -

  Let us make peace, my love, my bliss! 
  For cruel strife can last no more. 
  If you say nay, yet I say yes: 
  ’Twixt me and you there is no war. 
  Princes and mighty lords make peace;
  And so may lovers twain, I wis: 
  Princes and soldiers sign a truce;
  And so may two sweethearts like us: 
  Princes and potentates agree;
  And so may friends like you and me.

There is much character about the following, which is spoken by the damo : -

  As yonder mountain height I trod,
  I chanced to think of your dear name;
  I knelt with clasped hands on the sod,
  And thought of my neglect with shame: 
  I knelt upon the stone, and swore
  Our love should bloom as heretofore.

Sometimes the language of affection takes a more imaginative tone, as in the following : -

  Dearest, what time you mount to heaven above,
  I’ll meet you holding in my hand my heart: 
  You to your breast shall clasp me full of love,
  And I will lead you to our Lord apart.

  Our Lord, when he our love so true hath known,
  Shall make of our two hearts one heart alone;
  One heart shall make of our two hearts, to rest
  In heaven amid the splendours of the blest.

This was the woman’s.  Here is the man’s : -

  If I were master of all loveliness,
  I’d make thee still more lovely than thou art: 
  If I were master of all wealthiness,
  Much gold and silver should be thine, sweetheart: 
  If I were master of the house of hell,
  I’d bar the brazen gates in thy sweet face;
  Or ruled the place where purging spirits dwell,
  I’d free thee from that punishment apace. 
  Were I in paradise and thou shouldst come,
  I’d stand aside, my love, to make thee room;
  Were I in paradise, well seated there,
  I’d quit my place to give it thee, my fair!

Sometimes, but very rarely, weird images are sought to clothe passion, as in the following : -

  Down into hell I went and thence returned: 
  Ah me! alas! the people that were there! 
  I found a room where many candles burned,
  And saw within my love that languished there. 
  When as she saw me, she was glad of cheer,
  And at the last she said:  Sweet soul of mine;
  Dost thou recall the time long past, so dear,
  When thou didst say to me, Sweet soul of mine? 
  Now kiss me on the mouth, my dearest, here;
  Kiss me that I for once may cease to pine! 
  So sweet, ah me, is thy dear mouth, so dear,
  That of thy mercy prithee sweeten mine! 
  Now, love, that thou hast kissed me, now, I say,
  Look not to leave this place again for aye.

Or again in this : -

  Methinks I hear, I hear a voice that cries: 
  Beyond the hill it floats upon the air. 
  It is my lover come to bid me rise,
  If I am fain forthwith toward heaven to fare. 
  But I have answered him, and said him No! 
  I’ve given my paradise, my heaven, for you: 
  Till we together go to paradise,
  I’ll stay on earth and love your beauteous eyes.

But it is not with such remote and eerie thoughts that the rustic muse of Italy can deal successfully.  Far better is the following half-playful description of love-sadness : -

  Ah me, alas! who know not how to sigh! 
  Of sighs I now full well have learned the art: 
  Sighing at table when to eat I try,
  Sighing within my little room apart,
  Sighing when jests and laughter round me fly,
  Sighing with her and her who know my heart: 
  I sigh at first, and then I go on sighing;
  ’Tis for your eyes that I am ever sighing: 
  I sigh at first, and sigh the whole year through;
  And ’tis your eyes that keep me sighing so.

The next two rispetti, delicious in their naïveté, might seem to have been extracted from the libretto of an opera, but that they lack the sympathising chorus, who should have stood at hand, ready to chime in with ‘he,’ ‘she,’ and ‘they,’ to the ‘I,’ ‘you,’ and ‘we’ of the lovers : -

  Ah, when will dawn that glorious day
  When you will softly mount my stair? 
  My kin shall bring you on the way;
  I shall be first to greet you there. 
  Ah, when will dawn that day of bliss
  When we before the priest say Yes?

  Ah, when will dawn that blissful day
  When I shall softly mount your stair,
  Your brothers meet me on the way,
  And one by one I greet them there? 
  When comes the day, my staff, my strength,
  To call your mother mine at length? 
  When will the day come, love of mine,
  I shall be yours and you be mine?

Hitherto the songs have told only of happy love, or of love returned.  Some of the best, however, are unhappy.  Here is one, for instance, steeped in gloom : -

  They have this custom in fair Naples town;
  They never mourn a man when he is dead: 
  The mother weeps when she has reared a son
  To be a serf and slave by love misled;
  The mother weeps when she a son hath born
  To be the serf and slave of galley scorn;
  The mother weeps when she a son gives suck
  To be the serf and slave of city luck.

The following contains a fine wild image, wrought out with strange passion in detail : -

  I’ll spread a table brave for revelry,
  And to the feast will bid sad lovers all. 
  For meat I’ll give them my heart’s misery;
  For drink I’ll give these briny tears that fall. 
  Sorrows and sighs shall be the varletry,
  To serve the lovers at this festival: 
  The table shall be death, black death profound;
  Weep, stones, and utter sighs, ye walls around! 
  The table shall be death, yea, sacred death;
  Weep, stones, and sigh as one that sorroweth!

Nor is the next a whit less in the vein of mad Jeronimo : -

  High up, high up, a house I’ll rear,
  High up, high up, on yonder height;
  At every window set a snare,
  With treason, to betray the night;
  With treason, to betray the stars,
  Since I’m betrayed by my false feres;
  With treason, to betray the day,
  Since Love betrayed me, well away!

The vengeance of an Italian reveals itself in the energetic song which
I quote next : -

  I have a sword; ’twould cut a brazen bell,
  Tough steel ’twould cut, if there were any need: 
  I’ve had it tempered in the streams of hell
  By masters mighty in the mystic rede: 
  I’ve had it tempered by the light of stars;
  Then let him come whose skin is stout as Mars;
  I’ve had it tempered to a trenchant blade;
  Then let him come who stole from me my maid.

More mild, but brimful of the bitterness of a soul to whom the whole world has become but ashes in the death of love, is the following lament : -

  Call me the lovely Golden Locks no more,
  But call me Sad Maid of the golden hair. 
  If there be wretched women, sure I think
  I too may rank among the most forlorn. 
  I fling a palm into the sea; ’twill sink: 
  Others throw lead, and it is lightly borne. 
  What have I done, dear Lord, the world to cross? 
  Gold in my hand forthwith is turned to dross. 
  How have I made, dear Lord, dame Fortune wroth? 
  Gold in my hand forthwith is turned to froth. 
  What have I done, dear Lord, to fret the folk? 
  Gold in my hand forthwith is turned to smoke.

Here is pathos : -

  The wood-dove who hath lost her mate,
  She lives a dolorous life, I ween;
  She seeks a stream and bathes in it,
  And drinks that water foul and green: 
  With other birds she will not mate,
  Nor haunt, I wis, the flowery treen;
  She bathes her wings and strikes her breast;
  Her mate is lost:  oh, sore unrest!

And here is fanciful despair : -

  I’ll build a house of sobs and sighs,
    With tears the lime I’ll slack;
  And there I’ll dwell with weeping eyes
    Until my love come back: 
  And there I’ll stay with eyes that burn
  Until I see my love return.

The house of love has been deserted, and the lover comes to moan beneath its silent eaves : -

  Dark house and window desolate! 
  Where is the sun which shone so fair? 
  ’Twas here we danced and laughed at fate: 
  Now the stones weep; I see them there. 
  They weep, and feel a grievous chill: 
  Dark house and widowed window-sill!

And what can be more piteous than this prayer? : -

  Love, if you love me, delve a tomb,
  And lay me there the earth beneath;
  After a year, come see my bones,
  And make them dice to play therewith. 
  But when you’re tired of that game,
  Then throw those dice into the flame;
  But when you’re tired of gaming free,
  Then throw those dice into the sea.

The simpler expression of sorrow to the death is, as usual, more impressive.  A girl speaks thus within sight of the grave : -

  Yes, I shall die:  what wilt thou gain? 
  The cross before my bier will go;
  And thou wilt hear the bells complain,
  The Misérérés loud and low. 
  Midmost the church thou’lt see me lie
  With folded hands and frozen eye;
  Then say at last, I do repent! -
  Nought else remains when fires are spent.

Here is a rustic Oenone : -

  Fell death, that fliest fraught with woe! 
  Thy gloomy snares the world ensphere: 
  Where no man calls, thou lov’st to go;
  But when we call, thou wilt not hear. 
  Fell death, false death of treachery,
  Thou makest all content but me.

Another is less reproachful, but scarcely less sad : -

  Strew me with blossoms when I die,
  Nor lay me ’neath the earth below;
  Beyond those walls, there let me lie,
  Where oftentimes we used to go. 
  There lay me to the wind and rain;
  Dying for you, I feel no pain: 
  There lay me to the sun above;
  Dying for you, I die of love.

Yet another of these pitiful love-wailings displays much poetry of expression : -

  I dug the sea, and delved the barren sand: 
  I wrote with dust and gave it to the wind: 
  Of melting snow, false Love, was made thy band,
  Which suddenly the day’s bright beams unbind. 
  Now am I ware, and know my own mistake -
  How false are all the promises you make;
  Now am I ware, and know the fact, ah me! 
  That who confides in you, deceived will be.

It would scarcely be well to pause upon these very doleful ditties.  Take, then, the following little serenade, in which the lover on his way to visit his mistress has unconsciously fallen on the same thought as Bion : -

     Yestreen I went my love to greet,
     By yonder village path below: 
     Night in a coppice found my feet;
     I called the moon her light to show -
  O moon, who needs no flame to fire thy face,
  Look forth and lend me light a little space!

Enough has been quoted to illustrate the character of the Tuscan popular poetry.  These village rispetti bear the same relation to the canzoniere of Petrarch as the ‘savage drupe’ to the ‘suave plum.’  They are, as it were, the wild stock of that highly artificial flower of art.  Herein lies, perhaps, their chief importance.  As in our ballad literature we may discern the stuff of the Elizabethan drama undeveloped, so in the Tuscan people’s songs we can trace the crude form of that poetic instinct which produced the sonnets to Laura.  It is also very probable that some such rustic minstrelsy preceded the Idylls of Theocritus and the Bucolics of Virgil; for coincidences of thought and imagery, which can scarcely be referred to any conscious study of the ancients, are not a few.  Popular poetry has this great value for the student of literature:  it enables him to trace those forms of fancy and of feeling which are native to the people, and which must ultimately determine the character of national art, however much that may be modified by culture.