The preparation of wheat and other grains, in the form of bread, is one of the most important of all culinary operations, and to many persons one of the most difficult. It is impossible to set exact rules as to the quantity of flour or liquid to be used, for the quality of the flour varies as much as that of the grain from which it is made; and some varieties, excessive in gluten, will absorb nearly one-third more liquid than others, and produce correspondingly more bread. For this reason in buying flour we must choose that which contains the most gluten; this kind will remain in a firm, compact mass when pressed in the hand, and will retain all the lines and marks of the skin; or if mixed with water it will take up a great deal in proportion to its bulk, and will form a tough, elastic dough. Gluten in flour corresponds with the nitrates or flesh-formers in flesh, and abounds in hard winter wheat. The flour containing much of it is never extremely white.

The object of making bread, that is of mixing water with the flour and subsequently exposing the dough to intense heat, is to expand and rupture the cells of the grain so as to expose the greatest possible surface to the action of the digestive fluids; this is accomplished in several ways; by the formation of air cells through the medium of acetous fermentation, as in yeast bread; by the mechanical introduction of carbonic acid gas, as in aerated bread; by the mixture with the flour of a gas-generating compound, which needs only the contact of moisture to put it in active operation; and by the beating into the dough of atmospheric air. No organic change in the elements of the flour is necessary, like that produced by the partial decomposition of some of its properties, in bread raised with yeast; so long as proper surface is obtained for the action of the gastric juices, the purpose of raising is accomplished. Bread raised without fermentation can be made from the following receipt, and there is no question of its healthfulness.

254. Aerated Homemade Bread. Mix flour and water together to the consistency of a thick batter; then beat it until fine bubbles of air thoroughly permeate it; for small biscuit, pour it into patty pans, and bake in a good brisk oven; for bread in loaves more flour is thoroughly kneaded in with the hands, until the dough is full of air-bubbles, and then baked at once, without being allowed to stand.

When bread is to be raised by the acetous fermentation of yeast, the sponge should be maintained at a temperature of 89 deg. Fahr. until it is sufficiently light, and the baking should be accomplished at a heat of over 320 deg. When yeast is too bitter from the excess of hops, mix plenty of water with it, and let it stand for some hours; then throw the water off, and use the settlings. When yeast has soured it may be restored by adding to it a little carbonate of soda or ammonia. When dough has soured, the acidity can be corrected by the use of a little carbonate of soda or ammonia. If the sponge of “raised bread” be allowed to overwork itself it will sour from excessive fermentation, and if the temperature be permitted to fall, and the dough to cool, it will be heavy. Thorough kneading renders yeast-bread white and fine, but is unnecessary in bread made with baking-powder. Great care should be taken in the preparation of yeast for leavened bread, as the chemical decomposition inseparable from its use is largely increased by any impurity or undue fermentation. Experience and judgment are necessary to the uniform production of good bread; and those are gained only by repeated trials. We subjoin one of the best receipts which we have been able to procure, for making yeast.

255. Homebrewed Yeast. Boil two ounces of the best hops in four quarts of water for half an hour, strain off the liquor and let it cool till luke-warm, and then add half a pound of brown sugar and two heaping tablespoonfuls of salt; use a little of this liquor to beat up one pound of the best flour, and gradually mix in all of it with the flour; let it stand four days to ferment in a warm place near the fire, stirring it frequently. On the third day boil and mash three pounds of potatoes, and stir them into it. On the fourth day strain and bottle it; it will keep good for months.

256. Homemade Bread. Put seven pounds of flour into a deep pan, and make a hollow in the centre; into this put one quart of luke-warm water, one tablespoonful of salt, one teaspoonful of sugar, and half a gill of yeast; have ready three pints more of warm water, and use as much of it as is necessary to make a rather soft dough, mixing and kneading it well with both hands. When it is smooth and shining strew a little flour upon it, lay a large towel over it folded, and set it in a warm place by the fire for four or five hours to rise; then knead it again for fifteen minutes, cover it with the towel, and set it to rise once more; then divide it into two or four loaves, and bake it in a quick oven. This quantity of material will make eight pounds of bread, and will require one hour’s baking to two pounds of dough. In cold weather, the dough should be mixed in a warm room, and not allowed to cool while rising; if it does not rise well, set the pan containing it over a large vessel of boiling water; it is best to mix the bread at night, and let it rise till morning, in a warm and even temperature.

257. Milk Bread. Take one quart of milk, heat one-third of it, and scald with it half a pint of flour; if the milk is skimmed, use a small piece of butter; when the batter is cool, add the rest of the milk, one cup of hop yeast, half a tablespoonful of salt, and flour enough to make it quite stiff; knead the dough until it is fine and smooth, and raise it over night. This quantity makes three small loaves.

258. Rice Bread. Simmer one pound of rice in three quarts of water until the rice is soft, and the water evaporated or absorbed; let it cool until it is only luke-warm; mix into it nearly four pounds of flour, two teaspoonfuls of salt, and four tablespoonfuls of yeast; knead it until it is smooth and shining, let it rise once before the fire, make it up into loaves with the little flour reserved from the four pounds, and bake it thoroughly.

259. Potato Bread. Take good, mealy boiled potatoes, in the proportion of one-third of the quantity of flour you propose to use, pass them through a coarse sieve into the flour, using a wooden spoon and adding enough cold water to enable you to pass them through readily; use the proper quantity of yeast, salt, and water, and make up the bread in the usual way. A saving of at least twenty per cent is thus gained.

260. Pulled Bread. Take from the oven an ordinary loaf of bread when it is about half baked, and with the fingers, while it is yet hot, pull it apart in egg-sized pieces of irregular shape: throw them upon tins, and bake them in a slow oven to a rich brown color. This bread is excellent to eat with cheese or wine.

Where bread is made with baking powder the following rules should be closely observed: If any shortening be used, it should be rubbed into the flour before it is wet; cold water or sweet milk should always be used to wet it, and the dough should be kneaded immediately, and only long enough to thoroughly mix it and form it into the desired shape; it should then be placed in a well-heated oven and baked quickly otherwise the carbonic acid gas will escape before the expanded cells are fixed in the bread, and thus the lightness of the loaf will be impaired.

As a very large margin of profit is indulged in by the manufacturers of baking powders, we subjoin a good formula for making the article at home at a considerable saving.

261. Baking Powder. Mix thoroughly by powdering and sifting together several times the following ingredients; four ounces of tartaric acid, and six ounces each of bi-carbonate of soda, and starch. Keep the mixture in an air-tight can.

The following receipts will be found useful and easy:

262. Loaf Bread. Sift together two or three times one pound of flour, three teaspoonfuls of baking powder, one saltspoonful of salt, and one teaspoonful of fine sugar; mix with enough cold sweet milk to make the dough of the consistency of biscuit; or, if you have no milk, use cold water. Work the dough only long enough to incorporate the flour well with the milk or water; put it into a baking-pan buttered and slightly warmed, and set it immediately into a hot oven; after about five minutes cover it with paper so that the crust may not form so quickly as to prevent rising; bake about three-quarters of an hour. This bread is sweet and wholesome, and may be eaten by some persons whose digestion is imperfect, with greater safety than yeast-fermented bread.

263. Breakfast Rolls. Mix well by sifting, one pound of flour, three teaspoonfuls of baking powder, half a teaspoonful of salt, and one heaping teaspoonful of pulverized or fine sugar; into a small portion of the above rub two ounces of lard, fine and smooth; mix with the rest of the flour, and quickly wet it up with enough cold milk to enable you to roll it out about half an inch thick; cut out the dough with a tin shape or with a sharp knife, in the form of diamonds, lightly wet the top with water, and double them half over. Put them upon a tin, buttered and warmed, and bake them in a hot oven.

264. Tea Biscuit. Mix as above, using the same proportions, and cutting out with a round biscuit-cutter; when they are baked, wash them over with cold milk, and return them to the oven for a moment to dry.

265. Finger Biscuit. Mix as above, cut out with a sharp knife in strips three inches long, one inch wide, and one-quarter of an inch thick; lay them upon a buttered tin so that they will not touch, brush them over with an egg beaten up with one tablespoonful of milk, and bake them in a hot oven.

266. Cream Breakfast Rolls. Mix as above, substituting cream for the milk in moistening the dough; cut them out with an oval cutter, two inches long and one and a half inches wide; brush the tops with cream, and pull them slightly lengthwise; then fold them together, leaving a slight projection of the under side; put them on a buttered tin, brush the tops with cream, and bake them in a hot oven.

267. Breakfast Twist. Mix as for breakfast rolls, cut in strips three inches long and half an inch thick; roll each one out thin at the ends, but leave the centre of the original thickness; place three strips side by side, braid them together, and pinch the ends to hold them; when the twists are all made out, lay them upon a buttered tin, brush them over with milk, and bake them in a hot oven. A little fine sugar dusted over the tops glazes them and improves their flavor.

Hot rolls and biscuits should be served well covered with a napkin.

268. How to freshen stale Bread. A loaf of stale bread placed in a close tin vessel, and steamed for half an hour will be completely freshened.

269. Toast. But few persons know how to prepare toast properly. It should be made with the aim of evaporating from the bread all the superfluous water, and transforming its tough and moist substance into digestible food: for this reason the slices should be exposed gradually to heat of a gentle fire, first upon one side and then upon the other, for one minute, and after that they may be toasted golden-brown; at this stage it has become pure wheat farina, and is not liable to produce acetous fermentation in the stomach; besides, it will now absorb the butter thoroughly, and both substances will be in condition to be freely subjected to the action of gastric juice, and consequently will be digested with ease. Dry toast should be sent to the table the instant it is made. Buttered toast should be set into the oven for about five minutes to render it crisp.