CHAPTER  I

We stand before this great world.  The truth of our life depends upon our attitude of mind towards it ­an attitude which is formed by our habit of dealing with it according to the special circumstance of our surroundings and our temperaments.  It guides our attempts to establish relations with the universe either by conquest or by union, either through the cultivation of power or through that of sympathy.  And thus, in our realisation of the truth of existence, we put our emphasis either upon the principle of dualism or upon the principle of unity.

The Indian sages have held in the Upanishads that the emancipation of our soul lies in its realising the ultimate truth of unity.  They said: 

    Ishavasyam idam sarvam yat kinch jagatyam jagat. 
    Yena tyaktena bhunjitha ma graha kasyasvit dhanam.

     (Know all that moves in this moving world as enveloped by
     God; and find enjoyment through renunciation, not through
     greed of possession.)

The meaning of this is, that, when we know the multiplicity of things as the final truth, we try to augment ourselves by the external possession of them; but, when we know the Infinite Soul as the final truth, then through our union with it we realise the joy of our soul.  Therefore it has been said of those who have attained their fulfilment, ­“sarvam eva vishanti” (they enter into all things).  Their perfect relation with this world is the relation of union.

This ideal of perfection preached by the forest-dwellers of ancient India runs through the heart of our classical literature and still dominates our mind.  The legends related in our epics cluster under the forest shade bearing all through their narrative the message of the forest-dwellers.  Our two greatest classical dramas find their background in scenes of the forest hermitage, which are permeated by the association of these sages.

The history of the Northmen of Europe is resonant with the music of the sea.  That sea is not merely topographical in its significance, but represents certain ideals of life which still guide the history and inspire the creations of that race.  In the sea, nature presented herself to those men in her aspect of a danger, a barrier which seemed to be at constant war with the land and its children.  The sea was the challenge of untamed nature to the indomitable human soul.  And man did not flinch; he fought and won, and the spirit of fight continued in him.  This fight he still maintains; it is the fight against disease and poverty, tyranny of matter and of man.

This refers to a people who live by the sea, and ride on it as on a wild, champing horse, catching it by its mane and making it render service from shore to shore.  They find delight in turning by force the antagonism of circumstances into obedience.  Truth appears to them in her aspect of dualism, the perpetual conflict of good and evil, which has no reconciliation, which can only end in victory or defeat.

But in the level tracts of Northern India men found no barrier between their lives and the grand life that permeates the universe.  The forest entered into a close living relationship with their work and leisure, with their daily necessities and contemplations.  They could not think of other surroundings as separate or inimical.  So the view of the truth, which these men found, did not make manifest the difference, but rather the unity of all things.  They uttered their faith in these words:  “Yadidam kinch sarvam prana ejati nihsratam” (All that is vibrates with life, having come out from life).  When we know this world as alien to us, then its mechanical aspect takes prominence in our mind; and then we set up our machines and our methods to deal with it and make as much profit as our knowledge of its mechanism allows us to do.  This view of things does not play us false, for the machine has its place in this world.  And not only this material universe, but human beings also, may be used as machines and made to yield powerful results.  This aspect of truth cannot be ignored; it has to be known and mastered.  Europe has done so and has reaped a rich harvest.

The view of this world which India has taken is summed up in one compound Sanskrit word, Sachid[=a]nanda.  The meaning is that Reality, which is essentially one, has three phases.  The first is Sat; it is the simple fact that things are, the fact which relates us to all things through the relationship of common existence.  The second is Chit; it is the fact that we know, which relates us to all things through the relationship of knowledge.  The third is Ananda:  it is the fact that we enjoy, which unites us with all things through the relationship of love.

According to the true Indian view, our consciousness of the world, merely as the sum total of things that exist, and as governed by laws, is imperfect.  But it is perfect when our consciousness realises all things as spiritually one with it, and therefore capable of giving us joy.  For us the highest purpose of this world is not merely living in it, knowing it and making use of it, but realising our own selves in it through expansion of sympathy; not alienating ourselves from it and dominating it, but comprehending and uniting it with ourselves in perfect union.

CHAPTER  II

When Vikramaditya became king, Ujjayini a great capital, and Kalidasa its poet, the age of India’s forest retreats had passed.  Then we had taken our stand in the midst of the great concourse of humanity.  The Chinese and the Hun, the Scythian and the Persian, the Greek and the Roman, had crowded round us.  But, even in that age of pomp and prosperity, the love and reverence with which its poet sang about the hermitage shows what was the dominant ideal that occupied the mind of India; what was the one current of memory that continually flowed through her life.

In Kalidasa’s drama, Shakuntala, the hermitage, which dominates the play, overshadowing the king’s palace, has the same idea running through it ­the recognition of the kinship of man with conscious and unconscious creation alike.

A poet of a later age, while describing a hermitage in his Kadambari, tells us of the posture of salutation in the flowering lianas as they bow to the wind; of the sacrifice offered by the trees scattering their blossoms; of the grove resounding with the lessons chanted by the neophytes, and the verses repeated by the parrots, learnt by constantly hearing them; of the wild-fowl enjoying “vaishva-deva-bali-pinda” (the food offered to the divinity which is in all creatures); of the ducks coming up from the lake for their portion of the grass seed spread in the cottage yards to dry; and of the deer caressing with their tongues the young hermit boys.  It is again the same story.  The hermitage shines out, in all our ancient literature, as the place where the chasm between man and the rest of creation has been bridged.

In the Western dramas, human characters drown our attention in the vortex of their passions.  Nature occasionally peeps out, but she is almost always a trespasser, who has to offer excuses, or bow apologetically and depart.  But in all our dramas which still retain their fame, such as Mrit-Shakatika, Shakuntala, Uttara-Ramacharita, Nature stands on her own right, proving that she has her great function, to impart the peace of the eternal to human emotions.

The fury of passion in two of Shakespeare’s youthful poems is exhibited in conspicuous isolation.  It is snatched away, naked, from the context of the All; it has not the green earth or the blue sky around it; it is there ready to bring to our view the raging fever which is in man’s desires, and not the balm of health and repose which encircles it in the universe.

Ritusamhara is clearly a work of Kalidasa’s immaturity.  The youthful love-song in it does not reach the sublime reticence which is in Shakuntala and Kumara-Sambhava.  But the tune of these voluptuous outbreaks is set to the varied harmony of Nature’s symphony.  The moonbeams of the summer evening, resonant with the flow of fountains, acknowledge it as a part of its own melody.  In its rhythm sways the Kadamba forest, glistening in the first cool rain of the season; and the south breezes, carrying the scent of the mango blossoms, temper it with their murmur.

In the third canto of Kumara-Sambhava, Madana, the God Eros, enters the forest sanctuary to set free a sudden flood of desire amid the serenity of the ascetics’ meditation.  But the boisterous outbreak of passion so caused was shown against a background of universal life.  The divine love-thrills of Sati and Shiva found their response in the world-wide immensity of youth, in which animals and trees have their life-throbs.

Not only its third canto but the whole of the Kumara-Sambhava poem is painted upon a limitless canvas.  It tells of the eternal wedding of love, its wooing and sacrifice, and its fulfilment, for which the gods wait in suspense.  Its inner idea is deep and of all time.  It answers the one question that humanity asks through all its endeavours:  “How is the birth of the hero to be brought about, the brave one who can defy and vanquish the evil demon laying waste heaven’s own kingdom?”

It becomes evident that such a problem had become acute in Kalidasa’s time, when the old simplicity of Hindu life had broken up.  The Hindu kings, forgetful of their duties, had become self-seeking epicureans, and India was being repeatedly devastated by the Scythians.  What answer, then, does the poem give to the question it raises?  Its message is that the cause of weakness lies in the inner life of the soul.  It is in some break of harmony with the Good, some dissociation from the True.  In the commencement of the poem we find that the God Shiva, the Good, had remained for long lost in the self-centred solitude of his asceticism, detached from the world of reality.  And then Paradise was lost.  But Kumara-Sambhava is the poem of Paradise Regained.  How was it regained?  When Sati, the Spirit of Reality, through humiliation, suffering, and penance, won the Heart of Shiva, the Spirit of Goodness.  And thus, from the union of the freedom of the real with the restraint of the Good, was born the heroism that released Paradise from the demon of Lawlessness.

Viewed from without, India, in the time of Kalidasa, appeared to have reached the zenith of civilisation, excelling as she did in luxury, literature and the arts.  But from the poems of Kalidasa it is evident that this very magnificence of wealth and enjoyment worked against the ideal that sprang and flowed forth from the sacred solitude of the forest.  These poems contain the voice of warnings against the gorgeous unreality of that age, which, like a Himalayan avalanche, was slowly gliding down to an abyss of catastrophe.  And from his seat beside all the glories of Vikramaditya’s throne the poet’s heart yearns for the purity and simplicity of India’s past age of spiritual striving.  And it was this yearning which impelled him to go back to the annals of the ancient Kings of Raghu’s line for the narrative poem, in which he traced the history of the rise and fall of the ideal that should guide the rulers of men.

King Dilipa, with Queen Sudakshina, has entered upon the life of the forest.  The great monarch is busy tending the cattle of the hermitage.  Thus the poem opens, amid scenes of simplicity and self-denial.  But it ends in the palace of magnificence, in the extravagance of self-enjoyment.  With a calm restraint of language the poet tells us of the kingly glory crowned with purity.  He begins his poem as the day begins, in the serenity of sunrise.  But lavish are the colours in which he describes the end, as of the evening, eloquent for a time with the sumptuous splendour of sunset, but overtaken at last by the devouring darkness which sweeps away all its brilliance into night.

In this beginning and this ending of his poem there lies hidden that message of the forest which found its voice in the poet’s words.  There runs through the narrative the idea that the future glowed gloriously ahead only when there was in the atmosphere the calm of self-control, of purity and renunciation.  When downfall had become imminent, the hungry fires of desire, aflame at a hundred different points, dazzled the eyes of all beholders.

Kalidasa in almost all his works represented the unbounded impetuousness of kingly splendour on the one side and the serene strength of regulated desires on the other.  Even in the minor drama of Malavikagnimitra we find the same thing in a different manner.  It must never be thought that, in this play, the poet’s deliberate object was to pander to his royal patron by inviting him to a literary orgy of lust and passion.  The very introductory verse indicates the object towards which this play is directed.  The poet begins the drama with the prayer, “Sanmargalokayan vyapanayatu sa nastamasi vritimishah” (Let God, to illumine for us the path of truth, sweep away our passions, bred of darkness).  This is the God Shiva, in whose nature Parvati, the eternal Woman, is ever commingled in an ascetic purity of love.  The unified being of Shiva and Parvati is the perfect symbol of the eternal in the wedded love of man and woman.  When the poet opens his drama with an invocation of this Spirit of the Divine Union it is evident that it contains in it the message with which he greets his kingly audience.  The whole drama goes to show the ugliness of the treachery and cruelty inherent in unchecked self-indulgence.  In the play the conflict of ideals is between the King and the Queen, between Agnimitra and Dharini, and the significance of the contrast lies hidden in the very names of the hero and the heroine.  Though the name Agnimitra is historical, yet it symbolises in the poet’s mind the destructive force of uncontrolled desire ­just as did the name Agnivarna in Raghuvamsha.  Agnimitra, “the friend of the fire,” the reckless person, who in his love-making is playing with fire, not knowing that all the time it is scorching him black.  And what a great name is Dharini, signifying the fortitude and forbearance that comes from majesty of soul!  What an association it carries of the infinite dignity of love, purified by a self-abnegation that rises far above all insult and baseness of betrayal!

In Shakuntala this conflict of ideals has been shown, all through the drama, by the contrast of the pompous heartlessness of the king’s court and the natural purity of the forest hermitage.  The drama opens with a hunting scene, where the king is in pursuit of an antelope.  The cruelty of the chase appears like a menace symbolising the spirit of the king’s life clashing against the spirit of the forest retreat, which is “sharanyam sarva-bhutanam” (where all creatures find their protection of love).  And the pleading of the forest-dwellers with the king to spare the life of the deer, helplessly innocent and beautiful, is the pleading that rises from the heart of the whole drama.  “Never, oh, never is the arrow meant to pierce the tender body of a deer, even as the fire is not for the burning of flowers.”

In the Ramayana, Rama and his companions, in their banishment, had to traverse forest after forest; they had to live in leaf-thatched huts, to sleep on the bare ground.  But as their hearts felt their kinship with woodland, hill, and stream, they were not in exile amidst these.  Poets, brought up in an atmosphere of different ideals, would have taken this opportunity of depicting in dismal colours the hardship of the forest-life in order to bring out the martyrdom of Ramachandra with all the emphasis of a strong contrast.  But, in the Ramayana, we are led to realise the greatness of the hero, not in a fierce struggle with Nature, but in sympathy with it.  Sita, the daughter-in-law of a great kingly house, goes along the forest paths.  We read: 

“She asks Rama about the flowering trees, and shrubs and creepers which she has not seen before.  At her request Lakshmana gathers and brings her plants of all kinds, exuberant with flowers, and it delights her heart to see the forest rivers, variegated with their streams and sandy banks, resounding with the call of heron and duck.

“When Rama first took his abode in the Chitrakuta peak, that delightful Chitrakuta, by the Malyavati river, with its easy slopes for landing, he forgot all the pain of leaving his home in the capital at the sight of those woodlands, alive with beast and bird.”

Having lived on that hill for long, Rama, who was “giri-vana-priya” (lover of the mountain and the forest), said one day to Sita: 

“When I look upon the beauties of this hill, the loss of my kingdom troubles me no longer, nor does the separation from my friends cause me any pang.”

Thus passed Ramachandra’s exile, now in woodland, now in hermitage.  The love which Rama and Sita bore to each other united them, not only to each other, but to the universe of life.  That is why, when Sita was taken away, the loss seemed to be so great to the forest itself.

CHAPTER  III

Strangely enough, in Shakespeare’s dramas, like those of Kalidasa, we find a secret vein of complaint against the artificial life of the king’s court ­the life of ungrateful treachery and falsehood.  And almost everywhere, in his dramas, foreign scenes have been introduced in connection with some working of the life of unscrupulous ambition.  It is perfectly obvious in Timon of Athens ­but there Nature offers no message or balm to the injured soul of man.  In Cymbeline the mountainous forest and the cave appear in their aspect of obstruction to life’s opportunities.  These only seem tolerable in comparison with the vicissitudes of fortune in the artificial court life.  In As You Like It the forest of Arden is didactic in its lessons.  It does not bring peace, but preaches, when it says: 

    Hath not old custom made this life more sweet
    Than that of painted pomp?  Are not these woods
    More free from peril than the envious court?

In the Tempest, through Próspero’s treatment of Ariel and Caliban we realise man’s struggle with Nature and his longing to sever connection with her.  In Macbeth, as a prelude to a bloody crime of treachery and treason, we are introduced to a scene of barren heath where the three witches appear as personifications of Nature’s malignant forces; and in King Lear it is the fury of a father’s love turned into curses by the ingratitude born of the unnatural life of the court that finds its symbol in the storm on the heath.  The tragic intensity of Hamlet and Othello is unrelieved by any touch of Nature’s eternity.  Except in a passing glimpse of a moonlight night in the love scene in the Merchant of Venice, Nature has not been allowed in other dramas of this series, including Romeo and Juliet and Antony and Cleopatra, to contribute her own music to the music of man’s love.  In The Winter’s Tale the cruelty of a king’s suspicion stands bare in its relentlessness, and Nature cowers before it, offering no consolation.

I hope it is needless for me to say that these observations are not intended to minimise Shakespeare’s great power as a dramatic poet, but to show in his works the gulf between Nature and human nature owing to the tradition of his race and time.  It cannot be said that beauty of nature is ignored in his writings; only he fails to recognise in them the truth of the inter-penetration of human life with the cosmic life of the world.  We observe a completely different attitude of mind in the later English poets like Wordsworth and Shelley, which can be attributed in the main to the great mental change in Europe, at that particular period, through the influence of the newly discovered philosophy of India which stirred the soul of Germany and aroused the attention of other Western countries.

In Milton’s Paradise Lost, the very subject ­Man dwelling in the garden of Paradise ­seems to afford a special opportunity for bringing out the true greatness of man’s relationship with Nature.  But though the poet has described to us the beauties of the garden, though he has shown to us the animals living there in amity and peace among themselves, there is no reality of kinship between them and man.  They were created for man’s enjoyment; man was their lord and master.  We find no trace of the love between the first man and woman gradually surpassing themselves and overflowing the rest of creation, such as we find in the love scenes in Kumara-Sambhava and Shakuntala.  In the seclusion of the bower, where the first man and woman rested in the garden of Paradise ­

Bird, beast, insect or worm
Durst enter none, such was their awe of man.

Not that India denied the superiority of man, but the test of that superiority lay, according to her, in the comprehensiveness of sympathy, not in the aloofness of absolute distinction.

CHAPTER  IV

India holds sacred, and counts as places of pilgrimage, all spots which display a special beauty or splendour of nature.  These had no original attraction on account of any special fitness for cultivation or settlement.  Here, man is free, not to look upon Nature as a source of supply of his necessities, but to realise his soul beyond himself.  The Himalayas of India are sacred and the Vindhya Hills.  Her majestic rivers are sacred.  Lake Manasa and the confluence of the Ganges and the Jamuna are sacred.  India has saturated with her love and worship the great Nature with which her children are surrounded, whose light fills their eyes with gladness, and whose water cleanses them, whose food gives them life, and from whose majestic mystery comes forth the constant revelation of the infinite in music, scent, and colour, which brings its awakening to the soul of man.  India gains the world through worship, through spiritual communion; and the idea of freedom to which she aspired was based upon the realisation of her spiritual unity.

When, in my recent voyage to Europe, our ship left Aden and sailed along the sea which lay between the two continents, we passed by the red and barren rocks of Arabia on our right side and the gleaming sands of Egypt on our left.  They seemed to me like two giant brothers exchanging with each other burning glances of hatred, kept apart by the tearful entreaty of the sea from whose womb they had their birth.

There was an immense stretch of silence on the left shore as well as on the right, but the two shores spoke to me of the two different historical dramas enacted.  The civilisation which found its growth in Egypt was continued across long centuries, elaborately rich with sentiments and expressions of life, with pictures, sculptures, temples, and cérémonials.  This was a country whose guardian-spirit was a noble river, which spread the festivities of life on its banks across the heart of the land.  There man never raised the barrier of alienation between himself and the rest of the world.

On the opposite shore of the Red Sea the civilisation which grew up in the inhospitable soil of Arabia had a contrary character to that of Egypt.  There man felt himself isolated in his hostile and bare surroundings.  His idea of God became that of a jealous God.  His mind naturally dwelt upon the principle of separateness.  It roused in him the spirit of fight, and this spirit was a force that drove him far and wide.  These two civilisations represented two fundamental divisions of human nature.  The one contained in it the spirit of conquest and the other the spirit of harmony.  And both of these have their truth and purpose in human existence.

The characters of two eminent sages have been described in our mythology.  One was Vashishtha and another Vishvamitra.  Both of them were great, but they represented two different types of wisdom; and there was conflict between them.  Vishvamitra sought to achieve power and was proud of it; Vashishtha was rudely smitten by that power.  But his hurt and his loss could not touch the illumination of his soul; for he rose above them and could forgive.  Ramachandra, the great hero of our epic, had his initiation to the spiritual life from Vashishtha, the life of inner peace and perfection.  But he had his initiation to war from Vishvamitra, who called him to kill the demons and gave him weapons that were irresistible.

Those two sages symbolise in themselves the two guiding spirits of civilisation.  Can it be true that they shall never be reconciled?  If so, can ever the age of peace and co-operation dawn upon the human world?  Creation is the harmony of contrary forces ­the forces of attraction and repulsion.  When they join hands, all the fire and fight are changed into the smile of flowers and the songs of birds.  When there is only one of them triumphant and the other defeated, then either there is the death of cold rigidity or that of suicidal explosion.

Humanity, for ages, has been busy with the one great creation of spiritual life.  Its best wisdom, its discipline, its literature and art, all the teachings and self-sacrifice of its noblest teachers, have been for this.  But the harmony of contrary forces, which give their rhythm to all creation, has not yet been perfected by man in his civilisation, and the Creator in him is baffled over and over again.  He comes back to his work, however, and makes himself busy, building his world in the midst of desolation and ruins.  His history is the history of his aspiration interrupted and renewed.  And one truth of which he must be reminded, therefore, is that the power which accomplishes the miracle of creation, by bringing conflicting forces into the harmony of the One, is no passion, but a love which accepts the bonds of self-control from the joy of its own immensity ­a love whose sacrifice is the manifestation of its endless wealth within itself.