When the first Continental Congress began its sittings the only frontiersmen west of the mountains, and beyond the limits of continuous settlement within the old Thirteen Colonies, were the two or three hundred citizens of the little Watauga commonwealth.  When peace was declared with Great Britain the backwoodsmen had spread westward, in groups, almost to the Mississippi, and they had increased in number to some twenty-five thousand souls, of whom a few hundred dwelt in the bend of the Cumberland, while the rest were about equally divided between Kentucky and Holston.

    The Winning of the West.

This great westward movement of armed settlers was essentially one of conquest, no less than of colonization.  Thronging in with their wives and children, their cattle, and their few household goods, they won and held the land in the teeth of fierce resistance, both from the Indian claimants of the soil and from the representatives of a mighty and arrogant European power.  The chain of events by which the winning was achieved is perfect; had any link therein snapped it is likely that the final result would have been failure.  The wide wanderings of Boon and his fellow hunters made the country known and awakened in the minds of the frontiersmen a keen desire to possess it.  The building of the Watauga commonwealth by Robertson and Sevier gave a base of operations, and furnished a model for similar communities to follow.  Lord Dunmore’s war made the actual settlement possible, for it cowed the northern Indians, and restrained them from seriously molesting Kentucky during its first and most feeble years.  Henderson and Boon made their great treaty with the Cherokees in 1775, and then established a permanent colony far beyond all previous settlements, entering into final possession of the new country.  The victory over the Cherokees in 1776 made safe the line of communication along the Wilderness road, and secured the chance for further expansion.  Clark’s campaigns gained the Illinois, or northwestern regions.  The growth of Kentucky then became very rapid; and in its turn this, and the steady progress of the Watauga settlements, rendered possible Robertson’s successful effort to plant a new community still farther west, on the Cumberland.

    The Wars of the Backwoodsmen

The backwoodsmen pressed in on the line of least resistance, first taking possession of the debatable hunting-grounds lying between the Algonquins of the north and the Appalachian confederacies of the south.  Then they began to encroach on the actual tribal territories.  Every step was accompanied by stubborn and bloody fighting with the Indians.  The forest tribes were exceedingly formidable opponents; it is not too much to say that they formed a far more serious obstacle to the American advance than would have been offered by an equal number of the best European troops.  Their victories over Braddock, Grant, and St. Clair, gained in each case with a smaller force, conclusively proved their superiority, on their own ground, over the best regulars, disciplined and commanded in the ordinary manner.  Almost all of the victories, even of the backwoodsmen, were won against inferior numbers of Indians. The red men were fickle of temper, and large bodies could not be kept together for a long campaign, nor, indeed, for more than one special stroke; the only piece of strategy any of their chiefs showed was Cornstalk’s march past Dunmore to attack Lewis; but their tactics and discipline in the battle itself were admirably adapted to the very peculiar conditions of forest warfare.  Writers who speak of them as undisciplined, or as any but most redoubtable antagonists, fall into an absurd error.  An old Indian fighter, who, at the close of the last century, wrote, from experience, a good book on the subject, summed up the case very justly when he said:  “I apprehend that the Indian discipline is as well calculated to answer the purpose in the woods of America as the British discipline is in Flanders; and British discipline in the woods is the way to have men slaughtered, with scarcely any chance of defending themselves.” A comparison of the two victories gained by the backwoodsmen, at the Great Kanawha, over the Indians, and at Kings Mountain over Ferguson’s British and tories, brings out clearly the formidable fighting capacity of the red men.  At the Kanawha the Americans outnumbered their foes, at King’s Mountain they were no more than equal; yet in the former battle they suffered twice the loss they did in the latter, inflicted much less damage in return, and did not gain nearly so decisive a victory.

    Twofold Character of the Revolution.

The Indians were urged on by the British, who furnished them with arms, ammunition, and provisions, and sometimes also with leaders and with bands of auxiliary white troops, French, British, and tories.  It was this that gave to the revolutionary contest its twofold character, making it on the part of the Americans a struggle for independence in the east, and in the west a war of conquest, or rather a war to establish, on behalf of all our people, the right of entry into the fertile and vacant regions beyond the Alleghanies.  The grievances of the backwoodsmen were not the same as the grievances of the men of the seacoast.  The Ohio Valley and the other western lands of the French had been conquered by the British, not the Americans.  Great Britain had succeeded to the policy as well as the possessions of her predecessor, and, strange to say, had become almost equally hostile to the colonists of her own stock.  As France had striven for half a century, so England now in her turn strove, to bar out the settlers of English race from the country beyond the Alleghanies.  The British Crown, Parliament, and people were a unit in wishing to keep woodland and prairie for the sole use of their own merchants, as regions tenanted only by Indian hunters and French trappers and traders.  They became the guardians and allies of all the Indian tribes.  On the other hand, the American backwoodsmen were resolute in their determination to go in and possess the land.  The aims of the two sides thus clashed hopelessly.  Under all temporary and apparent grounds of quarrel lay this deep-rooted jealousy and incompatibility of interests.  Beyond the Alleghanies the Revolution was fundamentally a struggle between England, bent on restricting the growth of the English race, and the Americans, triumphantly determined to acquire the right to conquer the continent.

    The West Actually Conquered.

Had not the backwoodsmen been successful in the various phases of the struggle, we would certainly have been cooped up between the sea and the mountains.  If in 1774 and ’76 they had been beaten by the Ohio tribes and the Cherokees, the border ravaged, and the settlements stopped or forced back as during what the colonists called Braddock’s War, there is every reason to believe that the Alleghanies would have become our western frontier.  Similarly, if Clark had failed in his efforts to conquer and hold the Illinois and Vincennes, it is overwhelmingly probable that the Ohio would have been the boundary between the Americans and the British.  Before the Revolution began, in 1774, the British Parliament had, by the Quebec Act, declared the country between the Great Lakes and the Ohio to be part of Canada; and under the provisions of this act the British officers continued to do as they had already done ­that is, to hold adverse possession of the land, scornfully heedless of the claims of the different colonies.  The country was de facto part of Canada; the Americans tried to conquer it exactly as they tried to conquer the rest of Canada; the only difference was that Clark succeeded, whereas Arnold and Montgomery failed.

    But only Definitely Secured by Diplomacy.

Of course the conquest by the backwoodsmen was by no means the sole cause of our acquisition of the west.  The sufferings and victories of the westerners would have counted for nothing, had it not been for the success of the American arms in the east, and for the skill of our three treaty-makers at Paris ­Jay, Adams, and Franklin, but above all the two former, and especially Jay.  On the other hand, it was the actual occupation and holding of the country that gave our diplomats their vantage-ground.  When the treaty was made, in 1782, the commissioners of the United States represented a people already holding the whole Ohio Valley, as well as the Illinois.  The circumstances of the treaty were peculiar; but here they need to be touched but briefly, and only so far as they affected the western boundaries.  The United States, acting together with France and Spain, had just closed a successful war with England; but when the peace negotiations were begun, they speedily found that their allies were, if any thing, more anxious than their enemy to hamper their growth.  England, having conceded the grand point of independence, was disposed to be generous, and not to haggle about lesser matters.  Spain, on the contrary, was quite as hostile to the new nation as to England.  Through her representative, Count Aranda, she predicted the future enormous expansion of the Federal Republic at the expense of Florida, Louisiana, and Mexico, unless it was effectually curbed in its youth.  The prophecy has been strikingly fulfilled, and the event has thoroughly justified Spain’s fear; for the major part of the present territory of the United States was under Spanish dominion at the close of the Revolutionary war.  Spain, therefore, proposed to hem in our growth by giving us the Alleghanies for our western boundary. France was the ally of America; but as between America and Spain, she favored the latter.  Moreover, she wished us to remain weak enough to be dependent upon her further good graces.  The French court, therefore, proposed that the United States should content themselves with so much of the trans-Alleghany territory as lay round the head-waters of the Tennessee and between the Cumberland and Ohio.  This area contained the bulk of the land that was already settled; and the proposal showed how important the French court deemed the fact of actual settlement.

Thus the two allies of America were hostile to her interests.  The open foe, England, on the contrary was anxious to conclude a separate treaty, so that she might herself be in better condition to carry on negotiations with France and Spain; she cared much less to keep the west than she did to keep Gibraltar, and an agreement with the United States about the former left her free to insist on the retention of the latter.  Congress, in a spirit of slavish subserviency, had instructed the American commissioners to take no steps without the knowledge and advice of France.  Franklin was inclined to obey these instructions; but Jay, supported by Adams, boldly insisted on disregarding them; and accordingly a separate treaty was negotiated with England.  In settling the claims to the western territory, much stress was laid on the old colonial charters; but underneath all the verbiage it was practically admitted that these charters conferred merely inchoate rights, which became complete only after conquest and settlement.  The States themselves had already by their actions shown that they admitted this to be the case.  Thus North Carolina, when by the creation of Washington County ­now the State of Tennessee ­she rounded out her boundaries, specified them as running to the Mississippi.  As a matter of fact the royal grant, under which alone she could claim the land in question, extended to the Pacific; and the only difference between her rights to the regions east and west of the river was that her people were settling in one, and could not settle in the other.  The same was true of Kentucky, and of the west generally; if the States could rightfully claim to run to the Mississippi, they could also rightfully claim to run to the Pacific.  The colonial charters were all very well as furnishing color of title; but at bottom the American claim rested on the peculiar kind of colonizing conquest so successfully carried on by the backwoodsmen.  When the English took New Amsterdam they claimed it under old charters; but they very well knew that their real right was only that of the strong hand.  It was precisely so with the Americans and the Ohio valley.  They produced old charters to support their title; but in reality it rested on Clark’s conquests and above all on the advance of the backwoods settlements. [Footnote:  Mr. R. A. Hinsdale, in his excellent work on the “Old Northwest” (New York, 1888), seems to me to lay too much stress on the weight which our charter-claims gave us, and too little on the right we had acquired by actual possession.  The charter-claims were elaborated with the most wearisome prolixity at the time; but so were the English claims to New Amsterdam a century earlier.  Conquest gave the true title in each case; the importance of a claim is often in inverse order to the length at which it is set forth in a diplomatic document.  The west was gained by:  (1) the westward movement of the backwoodsmen during the Revolution; (2) the final success of the Continental armies in the east; (3) the skill of our diplomats at Paris; failure on any one of these three points would have lost us the west.

Mr. Hinsdale seems to think that Clark’s conquest prevented the Illinois from being conquered from the British by the Spaniards; but this is very doubtful.  The British at Detroit would have been far more likely to have conquered the Spaniards at St. Louis; at any rate there is small probability that they would have been seriously troubled by the latter.  The so-called Spanish conquest of St. Joseph was not a conquest at all, but an unimportant plundering raid.

The peace negotiations are best discussed in John Jay’s chapter thereon, in the seventh volume of Winsor’s “Narrative and Critical History of North America.”  Sparks’ account is fundamentally wrong on several points.  Bancroft largely follows him, and therefore repeats and shares his errors.]

This view of the case is amply confirmed by a consideration of what was actually acquired under the treaty of peace which closed the Revolutionary struggle.  Map-makers down to the present day have almost invariably misrepresented the territorial limits we gained by this treaty.  They represent our limits in the west in 1783 as being the Great Lakes, the Mississippi, and the 31st parallel of latitude from the Mississippi to the Chattahoochee; but in reality we did not acquire these limits until a dozen years later, by the treaties of Jay and Pinckney.  Two points must be kept in mind:  first, that during the war our ally, Spain, had conquered from England that portion of the Gulf coast known as West Florida; and second, that when the treaty was made the United States and Great Britain mutually covenanted to do certain things, some of which were never done.  Great Britain agreed to recognize the lakes as our northern boundary, but, on the alleged ground that we did not fulfil certain of our promises, she declined to fulfil this agreement, and the lake posts remained in her hands until the Jay treaty was ratified.  She likewise consented to recognize the 31st parallel as our southern boundary, but by a secret article it was agreed that if by the negotiations she recovered West Florida, then the boundary should run about a hundred miles farther north, ending at the mouth of the Yazoo.  The discovery of this secret article aroused great indignation in Spain.  As a matter of fact, the disputed territory, the land drained by the Gulf rivers, was not England’s to grant, for it had been conquered and was then held by Spain.  Nor was it given up to us until we acquired it by Pinckney’s masterly diplomacy.  The treaty represented a mere promise which in part was not and in part could not be fulfilled.  All that it really did was to guarantee us what we already possessed ­that is, the Ohio valley and the Illinois, which we had settled and conquered during the years of warfare.  Our boundary lines were in reality left very vague.  On the north the basin of the Great Lakes remained British; on the south the lands draining into the Gulf remained Spanish, or under Spanish influence.  The actual boundaries we acquired can be roughly stated in the north to have followed the divide between the waters of the lake and the waters of the Ohio, and in the south to have run across the heads of the Gulf rivers.  Had we remained a loose confederation these boundaries, would more probably have shrunk than advanced; we did not overleap them until some years after Washington had become the head of a real, not merely a titular, nation.  The peace of 1783, as far as our western limits were affected, did nothing more than secure us undisturbed possession of lands from which it had proved impossible to oust us.  We were in reality given nothing more than we had by our own prowess gained; the inference is strong that we got what we did get only because we had won and held it.

    The Backwoods Governments.

The first duty of the backwoodsmen who thus conquered the west was to institute civil government.  Their efforts to overcome and beat back the Indians went hand in hand with their efforts to introduce law and order in the primitive communities they founded; and exactly as they relied purely on themselves in withstanding outside foes, so they likewise built up their social life and their first systems of government with reference simply to their special needs, and without any outside help or direction.  The whole character of the westward movement, the methods of warfare, of settlement, and government, were determined by the extreme and defiant individualism of the backwoodsmen, their inborn independence and self-reliance, and their intensely democratic spirit.  The west was won and settled by a number of groups of men, all acting independently of one another, but with a common object, and at about the same time.  There was no one controlling spirit; it was essentially the movement of a whole free people, not of a single master-mind.  There were strong and able leaders, who showed themselves fearless soldiers and just law-givers, undaunted by danger, resolute to persevere in the teeth of disaster; but even these leaders are most deeply interesting because they stand foremost among a host of others like them.  There were hundreds of hunters and Indian fighters like Mansker, Wetzel, Kenton, and Brady; there were scores of commonwealth founders like Logan, Todd, Floyd, and Harrod; there were many adventurous land speculators like Henderson; there were even plenty of commanders like Shelby and Campbell.  These were all men of mark; some of them exercised a powerful and honorable influence on the course of events in the west.  Above them rise four greater figures, fit to be called not merely State or local, but national heroes.  Clark, Sevier, Robertson, and Boon are emphatically American worthies.  They were men of might in their day, born to sway the minds of others, helpful in shaping the destiny of the continent.  Yet of Clark alone can it be said that he did a particular piece of work which without him would have remained undone.  Sevier, Robertson, and Boon only hastened, and did more perfectly, a work which would have been done by others had they themselves fallen by the wayside. Important though they are for their own sakes, they are still more important as types of the men who surrounded them.

The individualism of the backwoodsmen, however, was tempered by a sound common-sense, and capacity for combination.  The first hunters might come alone or in couples, but the actual colonization was done not by individuals, but by groups of individuals.  The settlers brought their families and belongings either on pack-horses along the forest trails, or in scows down the streams; they settled in palisaded villages, and immediately took steps to provide both a civil and military organization.  They were men of facts, not theories; and they showed their usual hard common-sense in making a government.  They did not try to invent a new system; they simply took that under which they had grown up, and applied it to their altered conditions.  They were most familiar with the government of the county; and therefore they adopted this for the framework of their little independent, self-governing commonwealths of Watauga, Cumberland, and Transylvania.

They were also familiar with the representative system; and accordingly they introduced it into the new communities, the little forted villages serving as natural units of representation.  They were already thoroughly democratic, in instinct and principle, and as a matter of course they made the offices elective, and gave full play to the majority.  In organizing the militia they kept the old system of county lieutenants, making them elective, not appointive; and they organized the men on the basis of a regiment, the companies representing territorial divisions, each commanded by its own officers, who were thus chosen by the fighting men of the fort or forts in their respective districts.  Thus each of the backwoods commonwealths, during its short-lived term of absolute freedom, reproduced as its governmental system that of the old colonial county, increasing the powers of the court, and changing the justices into the elective representatives of an absolute democracy.  The civil head, the chairman of the court or committee, was also usually the military head, the colonel-commandant.  In fact the military side of the organization rapidly became the most conspicuous, and, at least in certain crises, the most important.  There were always some years of desperate warfare during which the entire strength of the little commonwealth was drawn on to resist outside aggression, and during these years the chief function of government was to provide for the griping military needs of the community, and the one pressing duty of its chief was to lead his followers with valor and wisdom in the struggle with the stranger.

These little communities were extremely independent in feeling, not only of the Federal Government, but of their parent States, and even of one another.  They had won their positions by their own courage and hardihood; very few State troops and hardly a Continental soldier had appeared west of the Alleghanies.  They had heartily sympathized with their several mother colonies when they became the United States, and had manfully played their part in the Revolutionary war.  Moreover they were united among themselves by ties of good-will and of services mutually rendered.  Kentucky, for instance, had been succored more than once by troops raised among the Watauga Carolinians or the Holston Virginians, and in her turn she had sent needed supplies to the Cumberland.  But when the strain of the war was over the separatist spirit asserted itself very strongly.  The groups of western settlements not only looked on the Union itself very coldly, but they were also more or less actively hostile to their parent States, and regarded even one another as foreign communities; they considered the Confederation as being literally only a lax league of friendship.

    Character of the Pioneer Population.

Up to the close of the Revolutionary contest the settlers who were building homes and States beyond the Alleghanies formed a homogeneous backwoods population.  The wood-choppers, game hunters, and Indian fighters, who dressed and lived alike, were the typical pioneers.  They were a shifting people.  In every settlement the tide ebbed and flowed.  Some of the new-comers would be beaten in the hard struggle for existence, and would drift back to whence they had come.  Of those who succeeded some would take root in the land, and others would move still farther into the wilderness.  Thus each generation rolled westward, leaving its children at the point where the wave stopped no less than at that where it started.  The descendants of the victors of King’s Mountain are as likely to be found in the Rockies as in the Alleghanies.

With the close of the war came an enormous increase in the tide of immigration; and many of the new-comers were of a very different stamp from their predecessors.  The main current flowed towards Kentucky, and gave an entirely different character to its population.  The two typical figures in Kentucky so far had been Clark and Boon, but after the close of the Revolution both of them sank into unimportance, whereas the careers of Sevier and Robertson had only begun.  The disappearance of the two former from active life was partly accidental and partly a resultant of the forces that assimilated Kentucky so much more rapidly than Tennessee to the conditions prevailing in the old States.  Kentucky was the best known and the most accessible of the western regions; within her own borders she was now comparatively safe from serious Indian invasion, and the tide of immigration naturally flowed thither.  So strong was the current that, within a dozen years, it had completely swamped the original settlers, and had changed Kentucky from a peculiar pioneer and backwoods commonwealth into a State differing no more from Virginia, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina than these differed from one another.

The men who gave the tone to this great flood of new-comers were the gentry from the sea-coast country, the planters, the young lawyers, the men of means who had been impoverished by the long-continued and harassing civil war.  Straitened in circumstances, desirous of winning back wealth and position, they cast longing eyes towards the beautiful and fertile country beyond the mountains, deeming it a place that afforded unusual opportunities to the man with capital, no less than to him whose sole trust was in his own adventurous energy.

Most of the gentle folks in Virginia and the Carolinas, the men who lived in great roomy houses on their well-stocked and slave-tilled plantations, had been forced to struggle hard to keep their heads above water during the Revolution.  They loyally supported the government, with blood and money; and at the same time they endeavored to save some of their property from the general wreck, and to fittingly educate their girls, and those of their boys who were too young to be in the army.  The men of this stamp who now prepared to cast in their lot with the new communities formed an exceptionally valuable class of immigrants; they contributed the very qualities of which the raw settlements stood most in need.  They had suffered for no fault of their own; fate had gone hard with them.  The fathers had been in the Federal or Provincial congresses; the older sons had served in the Continental line or in the militia.  The plantations were occasionally overrun by the enemy; and the general disorder had completed their ruin.  Nevertheless, the heads of the families had striven to send the younger sons to school or college.  For their daughters they did even more; and throughout the contest, even in its darkest hours, they sent them down to receive the final touches of a lady-like education at some one of the State capitals not at the moment in the hands of the enemy ­such as Charleston or Philadelphia.  There the young ladies were taught dancing and music, for which, as well as for their frocks and “pink calamanco shoes,” their fathers paid enormous sums in depreciated Continental currency.

Even the close of active hostilities, when the British were driven from the Southern States, brought at first but a slight betterment of condition to the straggling people.  There was no cash in the land, the paper currency was nearly worthless, every one was heavily in debt, and no one was able to collect what was owing to him.  There was much mob violence, and a general relaxation of the bonds of law and order.  Even nature turned hostile; a terrible drought shrunk up all the streams until they could not turn the grist-mills, while from the same cause the crops failed almost completely.  A hard winter followed, and many cattle and hogs died; so that the well-to-do were brought to the verge of bankruptcy and the poor suffered extreme privations, being forced to go fifty or sixty miles to purchase small quantities of meal and grain at exorbitant prices.

This distress at home inclined many people of means and ambition to try their fortunes in the west:  while another and equally powerful motive was the desire to secure great tracts of virgin lands, for possession or speculation.  Many distinguished soldiers had been rewarded by successive warrants for unoccupied land, which they entered wherever they chose, until they could claim thousands upon thousands of acres. Sometimes they sold these warrants to outsiders; but whether they remained in the hands of the original holders or not, they served as a great stimulus to the westward movement, and drew many of the representatives of the wealthiest and most influential families in the parent States to the lands on the farther side of the mountains.

At the close of the Revolution, however, the men from the sea-coast region formed but an insignificant portion of the western pioneers.  The country beyond the Alleghanies was first won and settled by the backwoodsmen themselves, acting under their own leaders, obeying their own desires, and following their own methods.  They were a marked and peculiar people.  The good and evil traits in their character were such as naturally belonged to a strong, harsh, and homely race, which, with all its shortcomings, was nevertheless bringing a tremendous work to a triumphant conclusion.  The backwoodsmen were above all things characteristically American; and it is fitting that the two greatest and most typical of all Americans should have been respectively a sharer and an outcome of their work.  Washington himself passed the most important years of his youth heading the westward movement of his people; clad in the traditional dress of the backwoodsmen, in tasselled hunting-shirt and fringed leggings, he led them to battle against the French and Indians, and helped to clear the way for the American advance.  The only other man who in the American roll of honor stands by the side of Washington, was born when the distinctive work of the pioneers had ended; and yet he was bone of their bone and flesh of their flesh; for from the loins of this gaunt frontier folk sprang mighty Abraham Lincoln.